Lecture 2: The trait, behavior, and contingency approach to leadership Flashcards
Great Man approach
the belief that leaders are born with innate qualities rather than being made through experience or education. Has been criticised for being too simplistic, dangerous and a product of self-delusion
Which big 5 traits are associated with leadership?
Extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience, all of which correlated with leader emergence and effectiveness
What are the criticisms with the trait and personality approach to leadership?
- validity of personality inventories for predicting job performance is low
- personality is less than successful in identifying whether leaders are successful objectively-> focus on the perceived influence
- selection of 5 factors is not justified conceptually and empirically, the 5 traits are too broad
- blends of 5 traits are more valid indicators of personality
Behavioural Approach/Behavioural Inhibition system
BAS is linked to high levels of extraversion, while BIS with high levels of neuroticism
What is the evolutionary theory and psychology approach to traits?
Characteristics arise from a process of mutation and selection. Some traits facilitate the emergence of leadership, which is linked to fitness. This is because being a leader enhance opportunities for procreation, so there more genetic material will be passed down leading to dominant traits. Leaders with the right traits are also more likely to be fit because they are in a better position to adapt, and use adaptation to benefit themselves. Having certain traits will allow leaders to emerge and perform their roles well, but these traits also depend on context
How is leadership circular?
The better the leader, the more effective the group and the better the group can protect the leader with threats. Or if a leader is excessively agreeable or conscientious, this can be undone by followers
Positive frequency-dependent selection
The evolutionary advantages of a trait increase as it becomes more common. The opposite is negative frequency dependent selection, where the fitness advantage of a trait increases as it becomes less common
What are the main paradoxes of traits?
- a trait that promotes fitness at one time may become irrelevant or counterproductive depending on situations
- antagonistic pleiotropy: polymorphism can have a positive effect on a fitness-related trait and negative effect on another
- traits may not have linear effects on fitness or leadership outcomes, more is not always better like for conscientiousness
What is the behavioural genetics approach to leadership?
- roughly half of the variance in personality is heritable, some unexplained variance can be environmental
- leadership emergence and effectiveness have heritability estimates of 30-60%
- situational variables can have a genetic source-> genes can result in selecting certain environments
- genes interact with the environment
Why do genetic individual differences persist?
- selective neutrality is where selection is blind to an individual difference so unrelated to fitness
- mutation-selection balance is where selection does perfectly eliminate the individual difference as the nature of the context has change
- balancing selection is when selection maintains genetic variation as a characteristic can be positively related to fitness in some and negatively in others
What is the socioanalytic perspective?
This is the degree to which success and attainment is predicated on individual differences. It is interpersonal and assumes that individuals have motives for getting along and getting ahead (linked to conscientiousness and extraversion). Getting ahead is easy to link to leadership outcomes-> status-striving. So: reputation is better assessed by observers, revising measures of leadership outcomes and dual motive approach by adding finding meaning
Leader Trait Emergence Effectiveness Heuristic model
- Causes: genetics results in mutations resulting in single nucleotide polymorphisms which products the phenotype of traits. Evolutionary processes- survival fitness through natural selection and sexual selection
- Traits, leader emergence and socioanalytic theory: traits are linked to emergence through mediators which includes motives like motivated to get ahead (conscientiousness, extraversion) and go along, provide meaning. Trait paradoxes are included
- Emergence can lead to subjective effectiveness such as satisfaction with leader ratings and objective effectiveness like performance, turnover, survival of unit. Moderators for SLE: traits and implicit leadership theories (matching prototypes).
Moderators of OLE: threats of pressure, resources and social conditions (how collectives are organized)
Traits included in LTEE
Extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness, CSE (core self-evaluations), intelligence, charisma, narcissism, hubris, dominance, machiavellianism
Big 5 traits with relations to leadership
Conscientiousness: disciplined in pursuing goal attainment, efficient, detail-oriented, deliberate in decision-making. Positively correlated with job performance, cooperation and negatively with turnover intentions and deviant behaviours. But cautious and analytical so unwilling to take risks, resistant to change-> poor org performance, missed opportunities, inflexible
Extraversion: assertive, active, energetic and optimistic so higher job satisfaction, likely to emerge as group leaders. Can be bold, aggressive and grandiose, can make hasty decisions and less likely to solicit input
Agreeableness: positively correlated with helping behaviours and facilitation, weak correlation w leader effectiveness. But, likely to avoid interpersonal conflict and avoiding decisions, given lenient performance ratings
Emotional stability: calm relaxed, consistent in emotional experiences, linked to job satisfaction, lack of turnover and wellbeing. Results in less emotional expression so can offer minimal feedback, less likely to use inspiration and rely on rational arguments, less credible
OE: intellectually curious, creative, insightful-> leadership, org change, TL. Can be easily distracted with ideas, less continuance commitment, frustrations in fantasy
Core self-evaluations
Includes self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy and emotional stability. Linked to job performance and executive leadership-> faster strategic decision process, large stake initiatives. Can serve best interests than stakeholders, can be related to narcissism and hubris
Intelligence
Linked to professional and social advantages, need to address important issues across functions. Can be seen as atypical and seen as outsiders especially with a mismatch in Iqs. High need for complex thought rather than simplistic and mundane problems
Charisma
Able to influence leaders by articulating a compelling vision for the future, commitment to objectives and self-efficacy. Can use persuasion for interpersonal power or self-enhancement, can emerge when conducive to radical change-> followers think less critically
Dark traits
Narcissism: arrogance, self-absorption, hostility, self-serving bias, others as inferior. Negatively linked to integrity, interpersonal performance, lower job performance. Predicts leader emergence, charisma, can have positive impressions, more enjoyment and positive affect during assignments
Hubris: excessive pride, self-confidence, self-evaluations for talent, ability. Respond defensively to negative feedback, discount info in conflict with self-views, pay more for justified premiums. Tend to be likable, attractive, speak up in groups, project power and strength in difficult situations
Social dominance: preference for hierarchy and stable status differences, prefer to control info, pressure on others. Can emerge as leaders and authority positions, attractive to followers, competence
Machiavellianism: cunning, manipulation, achieving self-interests, avoid prosocial motives. But, high motivation to lead, willing to invest for goals, strategic in thinking, power dynamics. Flexibility in tasks and charisma
Situational leadership theory
It involves a set of prescriptive principles, like follower developmental level is a crucial moderator of the relationship between leader behaviour and efficiency. It comprises follower competence (task-relevant knowledge and skills gained through education, training and experience) and commitment (follower motivation and confidence). Favourable leader behaviour is supportiveness (displaying warmth and consideration) and directiveness (initiating structure and monitoring results). Favourable leadership changes with follower development levels. Inexperienced followers: low supportive and high directive behaviour.
What does the SLT research propose?
SLT’s predictions are more likely to hold when leader rating and follower self-ratings of competence and commitment are congruent. Recognizing discrepancies and accepting them is important, so predictions are more likely to hold when follower self-ratings are applied. Predictions are not likely to hold when follower self-rating of competence and commitment are higher than the leaders’ ratings. Likely to hold when follower self-rating of competence and commitment are below the leaders’ as they can overestimate weakness and likely doing well but inaccurately recognizing strengths. Finally, SLT’s predictions are more likely to hold when the leader rating of follower competence and commitment is applied
Method and measures?
Collected from Norwegian for-profit organizations, used LEAD questionnaires to assess leadership style, performance rating scales and questionnaires for measuring considerateness and structuring behaviour and employee readiness scale.
Results?
SLT predictions more likely with congruence was supported as matched cases had improved performance. No support for application of follower’s self-ratings. Over-estimators perform worse than expected-> support for hypothesis 3. SLT predictions more likely to hold when leader ratings are applied was supported. Strong relationship between competence and commitment
System of classification?
Development level 1: combination low competence and high commitment
Development level 2: low competence with low commitment
Development level 3: moderate to high competence with variable commitment
Development level 4: high competence and high commitment
Practical implications
Agreement approach so creating mutual understanding between leader and followers should improve directiveness and supportiveness. The leader should tailor leadership style to follower development levels, than intermediate leadership styles with all followers. Higher levels of feedback can improve congruence in ratings between followers and leaders
