Lecture 1: Introduction to leadership, organizations and organizational culture

Question 1

How can culture be observed?

Answer 1

At macro levels (nations, occupations, large organizations) and micro levels (subcultures). There overlapping categories to capture culture elements. These can vary in observability

Question 2

What are the observational categories of culture?

Answer 2

1. Observed Behavioral Regularities: Interaction patterns, customs, and traditions manifest in language and regular exchanges (e.g., “Thank you” followed by “Don’t mention it”)
2. Climate: The overall atmosphere created by physical layout and interactions among group members
3. Formal Rituals and Celebrations: Methods by which groups commemorate important events, reflecting core values
4. Espoused Values: Publicly stated principles and values that the group aims to achieve, often seen in corporate recruiting efforts
5. Formal Philosophy: The ideology guiding actions toward stakeholders, such as the “HP way” of Hewlett-Packard
6. Group Norms: Implicit standards and values in working groups that evolve over time
7. Rules of the Game: Unwritten rules that newcomers must learn to integrate into the group
8. Identity and Images of Self: How organizations perceive themselves
9. Embedded Skills: Special competencies passed down through generations
10. Habits of Thinking and Mental Models: Shared cognitive frameworks that influence perceptions and language
11. Shared Meanings: Understandings formed through interactions where words may differ in meaning across cultures
12. Root Metaphors or Integrating Symbols: Symbols that embody the group’s essence, often reflected in physical artifacts

Question 3

How is culture defined?

Answer 3

the accumulated shared learning of a group as it solves external adaptation and internal integration problems. This learning is taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, feel, and behave. These form the cultural DNA and consists of foundational beliefs, values and behaviours that stabilize the group. These can be taken for granted over time

Question 4

How can a leader balance external tasks and internal integration?

Answer 4

By differentiating these aspects and guiding the group through challenges. Successful groups develop socio-technical systems that align with both external and internal needs. Leadership prompts new behaviours to adapt, and culture evolves based on learning experiences and the emotional intensity of those experiences.

Question 5

What are the important aspects in understanding culture’s nature?

Answer 5

1. Structural Stability: Culture implies stability, acting as the group’s identity and surviving even with member turnover
2. Depth: The deeper, often unconscious beliefs and values define the essence of culture, which is less visible but critically important.
3. Breadth: Culture influences all aspects of an organization, including mission and strategy, beyond just internal workings.
4. Patterning or Integration: The coherence of cultural elements into a unified structure creates predictability and reduces anxiety.

Question 6

How can culture be transmitted?

Answer 6

Through socialization, revealing surface aspects initially, but with greater status, deeper assumptions may be shared. Successful understanding needs to involve experiencing the group’s dynamics. It can be inferred only from observable behaviours, as these are influenced by external factors

Question 7

How do occupations develop their own cultures?

Answer 7

Based on shared learning and socialization during training. But there are variations based on macro cultures that influence practices within those occupation

Question 8

How can leadership be defined?

Answer 8

There are many different definitions, the main ones being: leadership is the behaviour of directing group activities towards a shared goal. It is the infuential increment beyond routine organizational compliance and involves influencing group activities for goal achievement. It encompasses articulating visions and conducive environments for accomplishment

Question 9

Specialized role perspective

Answer 9

Effective leadership needs specific responsibilities that should not be overly diffused among group members. So, a designated leader is responsible for guiding the group, while others adopt follower roles

Question 10

Shared influence process perspective

Answer 10

This alternative perspective sees leadership as a natural process within social systems, allowing for various individuals to exert influence. It emphasizes the importance of studying leadership as a relational process rather than a fixed role.

Question 11

What are the types of influence processes?

Answer 11

Some theorists argue that effective leadership should inspire enthusiastic commitment rather than mere compliance. Conversely, others argue that a broader definition of influence is necessary to fully understand leadership effectiveness, as various influence methods can yield different outcomes depending on the situation.

Question 12

What is the purpose of influence in leadership?

Answer 12

• Ethical Leadership Viewpoint: Leadership should only involve ethical influence that benefits both the organization and its members.
• Broad Influence Viewpoint: This perspective includes all attempts to influence followers, regardless of ethical considerations, acknowledging the complexity of leader motives and the mixed outcomes of leadership actions.

Question 13

How has the perspective on the influence of leadership changed over time?

Answer 13

It was viewed through a rational lens, only emphasising cognitive processes that motivate compliance. But, recent perspective acknowledge the emotional dimensions of influence, by inspiring followers to act for a higher cause

Question 14

Direct leadership

Answer 14

Involves direct interactions with followers, such as meetings and communications, to influence their behaviors and attitudes.

Question 15

Indirect leadership

Answer 15

Refers to how leaders influence others without direct interaction, including cascading influence through organizational hierarchies and shaping organizational culture.

Question 16

What is the distinction between leadership and management?

Answer 16

While a leader can exist without being a manager, and vice versa, the two roles often overlap in practice. The most effective perspective views leadership as an integral part of management processes, emphasizing the need for empirical research to explore how these roles interact.

Question 17

What is the definition of leadership used in the book?

Answer 17

Leadership is broadly defined as the process of influencing others to understand and agree on objectives and how to achieve them. This definition encompasses both direct and indirect influence and does not assume successful outcomes from the influence processes.

Question 18

What are indicators of leadership effectiveness?

Answer 18

• Performance Indicators: Objective measures like sales and productivity, as well as subjective measures such as follower satisfaction.
• Follower Attitudes: Evaluations of how well a leader meets the needs and expectations of followers, which can indicate overall effectiveness.
• Group Process Quality: Assessing how well a leader enhances group dynamics, cooperation, and decision-making processes.

Question 19

What are innovative methods of studying leadership effectiveness?

Answer 19

innovative methods like social network analysis and biosensor technology are being employed to understand leadership dynamics.

Question 20

What are the major perspective in leadership theory?

Answer 20

1. Leader Characteristics: Traits, skills, and behaviours of leaders.
2. Follower Characteristics: Traits and motivations of followers.
3. Situational Characteristics: Contextual factors influencing leadership effectiveness.

Question 21

What are levels of conceptualization for leadership processes?

Answer 21

• Intra-Individual Level: Focuses on leader traits and decision-making processes.
• Dyadic Level: Examines interactions between leaders and individual followers.
• Group Level: Investigates collective processes affecting team performance.
• Organizational Level: Analyzes leadership’s impact on broader organizational outcomes.

Question 22

How can leadership theories be compared?

Answer 22

• Leader-Centered vs. Follower-Centered: Whether the focus is primarily on leaders, followers, or a balance of both.
• Universal vs. Contingency: The extent to which theories apply across situations versus specific contexts.
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive: Whether theories explain leadership processes or prescribe effective behaviors.

Question 23

What are the key features of cyborg organizations?

Answer 23

1. Integration of Technology: Organizations utilize artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance decision-making autonomy and efficiency.
2. Structural Evolution: These organizations are continually adapting and evolving their structures.
3. Data-Driven: They rely on internal and external data sources to inform decisions and strategies.
4. Automation and Robotization: There is a significant emphasis on automating processes, which leads to increased efficiency but also presents new risks.

Question 24

What does this metaphor mean?

Answer 24

Organizations can be seen as a form of “cyborg”—an entity that integrates technology and humanity within a unified organizational structure while maintaining the unique characteristics and functions of each domain.

Question 25

How was the analysis conducted?

Answer 25

-The authors searched literature on organizational metaphors and found 950 articles, focusing on 14 that specifically addressed metaphors relevant to organizations. A search for literature related to organizations functioning as cyber-physical systems yielded 433 items, primarily highlighting economic and engineering perspectives, with few addressing the organizational characteristics of the 4IR

Question 26

What were the previous metaphors included as images of organizations?

Answer 26

- Machine: Bureaucratic processes. - Organism: Adaptation to environments. - Brain: Learning and cybernetics. - Culture: Shared realities and corporate culture. - Political System: Stakeholder interests and power dynamics. - Psychic Prison: Cognitive biases and repression. - Flux and Transformation: Change and complexity. - Instrument of Domination: Control and exploitation

Question 27

What are the features of organizations understood as a cyborg?

Answer 27

1. Monitoring and Augmentation of Human Workers: Use of technology to enhance human capabilities and monitor performance. 2. Bifurcated Structure: Clear distinction between human and machine roles within the organization. Means new competencies for human workers to supervise AI systems 3. Techno-Empowerment: Machines are given autonomy to make decisions, influencing organizational dynamics. 4. Ongoing Evolution: Organizations must continuously adapt to technological advancements and changing environments.

Question 28

Organizational internal eyes

Answer 28

refers to technologies that monitor employee performance and well-being. While these technologies can enhance efficiency and safety, they also raise ethical concerns regarding privacy and autonomy. Employees may feel overcontrolled and dehumanized by such monitoring systems.

Question 29

What are the consequences of machines being empower to make decisions without human oversight?

Answer 29

This shift leads to greater efficiency but heightens the risk of reliance on flawed data. The trust between human workers and machines are important in this dynamic

Question 30

Technoization

Answer 30

When machines perform most organizational functions, leaving little oversight to human management. Raises questions about the future of human roles in organizations and the potential for fully automated systems

Question 31

What are the managerial implications?

Answer 31

1. Balancing Autonomy: Managers must carefully determine the level of autonomy granted to machines to avoid ethical dilemmas and employee resistance. 2. Investment in Security: Robust cybersecurity measures must be in place to protect against potential data breaches and ensure organizational integrity. 3. New Human Roles: The emergence of "monitors and interpreters of algorithms" may become necessary to bridge the gap between human workers and automated decision-making systems.

Question 32

How does the cyborg metaphor differ across types of organizations?

Answer 32

While highly automated environments like manufacturing may exhibit more pronounced cyborg characteristics, organizations in other sectors may also possess elements of this metaphor through their reliance on technology

Question 33

How have organizations been evolving during the 4IR?

Answer 33

In the direction of anastomosis which is the interconnection or interface created between biological reservoirs or channels. This involves binding human and machine domains in response to environmental changes

Question 34

Why is hierarchy so important?

Answer 34

Leaders emerge naturally, resources are distributed unequally, and individuals are assigned different levels of power based on their roles.

Question 35

Social hierarchy

Answer 35

described as an implicit or explicit rank order among individuals or groups concerning a valued social dimension. This ranking may arise from formal structures or informal interactions.

Question 36

Types of hierarchy?

Answer 36

- Formal Hierarchy: Characterized by structured roles and defined reporting lines. - Informal Hierarchy: Emerges organically based on social interactions and perceptions.

Question 37

Functions of hierarchy?

Answer 37

- Establishing Order: Hierarchies provide stability and facilitate coordination among individuals working toward common objectives. - Motivating Individuals: Hierarchies create incentives for individuals to seek higher ranks, aligning personal ambitions with organizational goals

Question 38

What are the bases of social hierarchy?

Answer 38

1. Status: Defined as the degree to which an individual or group is respected or admired by others. Status hierarchies are primarily subjective and can be influenced by factors such as competence and reputation. 2. Power: Defined as the asymmetric control over valued resources in social relations. Unlike status, power is objective and can be measured based on the resources that individuals or groups control.

Question 39

What are the differences between power and status?

Answer 39

Power is based on resource control, while status is conferred by others. They are interrelated, where power can lead to status and vice versa.

Question 40

How are hierarchies self-reinforcing?

Answer 40

- Psychological Effects: Individuals in power process information, set goals, and make decisions that help them maintain their status and control over resources. - Social Dynamics: Once a status hierarchy is established, it affects how tasks are performed and how individuals are evaluated, perpetuating existing hierarchies. - Motivational Aspects: Even low-ranking individuals may have reasons to uphold the hierarchy due to the order and stability it provides, creating a self-reinforcing cycle.

Question 41

Organization

Answer 41

A consciously managed and coordinated social entity with an identifiable boundary, functioning on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.

Question 42

Organization structure

Answer 42

It defines how tasks are allocated, areas of responsibility and authority, and the formal coordinating mechanisms and interaction patterns that will be followed. It consists of three components: - Complexity: The extent of differentiation within the organisation (e.g., number of tasks, management levels). - Formalisation: The degree to which rules and procedures direct employee behaviour. - Centralisation: The distribution of decision-making authority within the organisation.

Question 43

Organization design

Answer 43

The construction and alteration of an organisation's structure to achieve its goals. This involves creating plans and organisation charts.

Question 44

Organization theory

Answer 44

The discipline that studies the structure and design of organisations along with their culture, adaptability, and the impact of their environment.

Question 45

Organizational behaviour

Answer 45

The study of how individuals and teams behave in the workplace, focusing on performance and attitude variables.

Question 46

What is the biological metaphor in organizations

Answer 46

The biological metaphor compares organisations to living organisms, suggesting that they undergo a life cycle of birth, growth, and potential decline. This perspective emphasizes that organisations must adapt to their environments to survive.

Question 47

What is the systems perspective?

Answer 47

A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts that interact to produce a unified output. It makes the distinction between open and closed systems. Open systems: Interact with their environment and rely on external inputs for survival. Closed systems: Self-contained with limited interaction with the environment.

Question 48

What are characteristics of open systems?

Answer 48

1. Environmental Awareness: Recognition of interdependence with the environment. 2. Feedback: Continuous receipt of information from the environment for adjustments. 3. Cyclical Character: Systems consist of cycles of events where outputs provide means for new inputs. 4. Tendency Towards Growth: Open systems can import energy and resources to maintain and grow. 5. Steady State: Balance between inputs and outputs to maintain stability. 6. Movement Towards Growth and Expansion: Larger systems seek to acquire safety margins for survival. 7. Balance of Maintenance and Adaptive Activities: Systems must reconcile stability with adaptability. 8. Equifinality: Different paths can lead to the same outcome.

Question 49

What are the stages of the life-cycle perspective?

Answer 49

The organisational life cycle refers to the pattern of predictable change, encompassing five stages: 1. Entrepreneurial Stage: High creativity, fluid goals, and a focus on acquiring resources. 2. Collectivity Stage: Clarified mission with informal communication and high commitment. 3. Formalisation-and-Control Stage: Increased predictability with formal rules and emphasis on efficiency. 4. Elaboration-of-Structure Stage: Complex bureaucracy that seeks new growth opportunities. 5. Decline Stage: Shrinking demand leads to conflicts and increased centralisation in decision-making.

Question 50

Why are perspectives important?

Answer 50

The system perspective encourages understanding of organizations as interdependent subsystems that need integration. The life cycle perspective highlights the dynamic nature of organizations, outlining predictable changes and the necessity for management to adapt.

Question 51

Why is understanding organization theory important?

Answer 51

It provides frameworks for analysing and designing organizations to enhance their effectiveness in achieving goals while navigating the complexities of their environments. The insights from both the systems and life-cycle perspectives offer valuable tools for managers to foster organisational resilience and adaptability.