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Intro to neuroscience > Lecture 2: organization of nervous system > Flashcards

Lecture 2: organization of nervous system Flashcards

1
Q

anterior

A

in front = towards the face

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2
Q

posterior

A

behind = towards the back

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3
Q

superior

A

above = towards the head

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4
Q

medial

A

towards the midline

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5
Q

inferior

A

below = towards the feet

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6
Q

lateral

A

towards the edges

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7
Q

dorsal

A

toward the top of the brain or the back of spinal cord

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8
Q

ventral

A

toward the bottom of the brain or the front of spinal cord

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9
Q

rostral

A

toward the front of the brain or the top of spinal cord

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10
Q

caudal

A

toward the back of the brain or the bottom of spinal cord

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11
Q

ipsilateral

A

structures on the same side

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12
Q

contralateral

A

structures on the opposite side

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13
Q

How is mammalian nervous system divided?

A

CNS = central nervous system and PNS = peripheral nervous system

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14
Q

midsaggital plane

A

splitting brain into equal right and left halves

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15
Q

horizontal plane

A

parallel to the ground = split brain into dorsal and ventral parts

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16
Q

coronal plane

A

perpendicular to ground and saggital plane = split brain into anterior and posterior parts

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17
Q

What comprises central nervous system?

A

cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal cord = encased in bone

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18
Q

cerebrum

A

mostly rostral; largest part of the brain; spilts in the middle to form 2 cerebral hemispheres seperated by deep saggital fissure => right cerebral hemisphere receives signals and controls the left side of the body

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19
Q

cerebellum

A

little brain! behind cerebrum; primarily movement control centre -> extensive connections with cerebrum and spinal cord; in contrast to hemispheres -> left side of cerebellum controls movement of left side of the body

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20
Q

brain stem

A

stalk from which cerebrum and cerebellum sprout; rely of information from cerebrum -> spinal cord and cerebellum (and vice versa); regulates vital functions (breathing, body temperature) = the most primitive and important part of mammalian brain

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21
Q

What if you damage brain stem?

A

you die

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22
Q

spinal cord

A

encased in bony vertebral column = attached to brain stem; major conduit of information from skin, joints, muscles

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23
Q

What if you damage spinal cord?

A

there is lack of feeling in the skin and paralysis of muscles caudal to the injury -> technically muscles CAN function, but cannot be controlled by the brain

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24
Q

dorsal root

A

axons bring information into spinal cord

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25
Q

ventral root

A

axons carry information away from spinal cord

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26
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

can be further divided into somatic and visceral subdivisions; sticks out from the bony structure

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27
Q

somatic PNS

A

muscles under voluntary control -> somatic motor axons which command muscle contraction, derive from motor neurons in the ventral spinal cord => cell bodies of motor neurons lie within CNS but their axons mostly in PNS; information from sensory axons enters via dorsal root

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28
Q

visceral PNS

A

involuntary, automatic nervous system -> neurons which innervate internal organs, blood vessels, glands; visceral sensory axons bring infromation about visceral function to CNS -> visceral motor fibres command contraction and relaxation of muscles (intestines, blood vessels), rate of cardiac muscle contraction and secretory function of various glands

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29
Q

afferent axons

A

carry information TOWARDS sth

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30
Q

efferent axons

A

carry information FROM sth

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31
Q

corticospinal tract

A

pyramidal tract, is the major neuronal pathway providing voluntary motor function

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32
Q

spinothalamic tract

A

sensory tract that carries pain, temperature, touch, and pressure from our skin to the somatosensory area of the thalamus

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33
Q

meninges

A

3 membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord = dura mater, archnoid membrane, pia mater

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34
Q

dura mater

A

'’hard mother’’ -> dura -> leather-like consistency, tough, inelastic bag surrounding brain and spinal cord

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35
Q

archnoid membrane

A

under dura mater, spider like extensions

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36
Q

subdural hematoma

A

if blood vessels passing through dura are ruptured, blood can collect in space between dura amter and achnoid membrane

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37
Q

pia mater

A

'’gentle mother’’; thinnest one, follows all blood vessels into the brain -> adheres closely to the brain

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38
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

subarchnoid space between archnoid mater and pia mater -> brain floats in CSF -> PROTECTION

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39
Q

ventricular system

A

cerebrospinal fluid-filled caverns and canals inside the brain

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40
Q

choroid plexus

A

specialized tissue in ventricles that secretes CSF

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41
Q

flow of CSF

A

cerebrum -> brain stem core -> subarachnoid space -> spacial structures called arachnoid vili absorb CSF

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42
Q

glymphatic system

A

excretes waste in CSF - pumping

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43
Q

hydrocephallus

A

'’water head’’ -> when flow of CSF from choroid plexus through ventricular system to subarachnoid space is impaired = swelling of ventricles

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44
Q

CLARITY

A

new method of visualization of deep brain structures without slicing the brain; soaking brain is solution which replaces light-absorbing lipids with water-soluble gel that turns brain transparent -> transparent brain illuminated to evoke fluorescence from neurons that express green fluorescent protein

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45
Q

computed tomography

A

computarized x-ray imaging procedure in which narrow beam of x-rays is aimed at patient and quickly rotated around the body, producing signals that are processed by the machine’s computer to generate cross-sectional images (slices)

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46
Q

magnetic resonance imaging

A

more detailed thatn CT, does not require x-ray radiation, brain slices at any plane desired -> uses information about how hydrogen atoms in the brain respond to perturbations of strong magnetic field -> electromagnetic signals emitted by atoms are detected by array of sensors around the head

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47
Q

How MRI works?

A

makes proton jump from LOW-energy to HIGH-energy states -> resonant frequency= frequency at which protons absorb energy -> when radio signal is turned off some protons return to low-energy state -> the stronger the signal, the more hydrogen atoms between poles of the magnet

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48
Q

high frequency signals (MRI)

A

hydrogen atoms near strong side of magnet

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49
Q

low frequency signals (MRI)

A

hydrogen atoms near weak side of magnet

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50
Q

diffusion tensor imaging

A

visualization of large bundles of axons in the brain, comparing positions of hydrogen atoms in water molecules at discrete time intervals -> diffusion of water in brain measured -> water diffuses much more readily alongside axon membranes than across them, and this difference can be used to detect axon bundles that connect different brain regions

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51
Q

what are functional brain imagining methods?

A

PET, fMRI

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52
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

radioactive solution containing atoms that emit positrons (positively charged electrons) is introduced into bloodstream -> positrons (emitted wherever blood goes) interact with electrons to produce photons of electromagnetic radiation -> location of positron-emitting atoms are found by detectors that pick up the photons => measurement of metabolic activity in the brain

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53
Q

What are PET limitations?

A

low spatial resolution, takes several minutes to obtain scan, radiation

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54
Q

fMRI - functional magnetic resonance imaging

A

oxyhemoglobin (oxygenated from hemoglobin in the blood) has magnetic resonance different from deoxyhemoglobin (hemoglobin that has donated its oxygen) - more active brain regions receive more blood with oxygen -> measuring ration of oxyhemoglobin to deoxyhemoglobin

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55
Q

What are fMRI advantages?

A

good spatial and temporal resolution, noninvasie

56
Q

important cranial nerves

A

olfactory tract and optic nerve = purely sensory (do not move your eyes or nose), vagus (nerve 10, carries parasymapthetic nervous system)

57
Q

spinal nerves

A

extend from spinal cordl; innervate skin, joints, mucles

58
Q

dorsal root ganglia

A

contain cell bodies of peripheral sensory neurons

59
Q

from what part of spinal cord come motor nerves?

A

ventral part of spinal column

60
Q

from what part of spinal cord come sensory nerves?

A

from back of spinal column

61
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

visceral PNS - sympathetic and parasympathetic division - innervates smooth muscles of internal organs, blood vessels, glands etc

62
Q

sympathetic division

A

prepares body for action -> pupil dilation, broncholidation (breathing), cardiac acceleration (heart pumping), inhibition of digestion, piloerection, stimulation of glucose release, systematic vasoconstriction (bringing blood pressure up)

63
Q

parasympathetic division

A

prepares body for digestion and rest -> pupil constriction, brochoconstriction, cardiac deceleration, stimulation of digestion, salivation, lacrimation (tears flow), intestinal vasodilation

64
Q

what are autonomic measures?

A

measures of emotion, stress and arousal; ECG, skin conductance, plethysmography, respiration

65
Q

electrocardiogram (ECG)

A

electrical activity of the heart

66
Q

skin conductance/resistance

A

based on change in conductance by swear secretion

67
Q

plethysmography

A

vascular flow = blood flow

68
Q

respiration

A

respiratory effort, air exchange

69
Q

gray matter

A

collection of neruonal cell bodies in CNS; when freshly dissected brain is cut open, neurons appear gray

70
Q

cortex

A

any collection of neurons that form thin sheet, usually brain surface; example: cerebral cortex

71
Q

nucleus

A

clearly distinguishable mass of neurons, usually deep in the brain; example: lateral geniculare nucleus

72
Q

substantia

A

group of related neurons within the brain but usually with less distinct borders than those of nuclei; example: substantia nigra

73
Q

locus

A

small, well-defined group of cells; example: locus coeruleus

74
Q

ganglion

A

collection of neurons in PNS; example: dorsal root ganglion

75
Q

the only ganglion in CNS

A

basal ganglia = lying deep within cerebrum that control movement

76
Q

nerve

A

bundle of axons in PNS

77
Q

What is the only nerve of CNS?

A

optic nerve

78
Q

white matter

A

collection of CNS axons, when dissected brain is cut open, axons apear white

79
Q

tract

A

collection of CNS axons having common site of origin and common destination; example: corticospinal tract

80
Q

bundle

A

collection of axons that run together but do not necessarily have the same origin and destination; example: forebrain bundle

81
Q

capsule

A

collection of axons that connect cerebrum with the brain stem; example: internal capsule

82
Q

commisure

A

any collection of axons that connect one side of the brain to other side

83
Q

lemniscus

A

tract that meanders through brain like ribbon, example: medial lemniscus

84
Q

With what layers does embryo begin?

A

endoderm (internal organs), mesoderm (bones and muscles), ectoderm (nervous system and skin)

85
Q

What is neurulation?

A

process by which neural plate becomes neural tube

86
Q

How does neurulation occur?

A

From ectoderm, neural plate is formed (17 days after conception), when neural groove starts to appear and folds until canal is formed. This canal forms neural tube.

87
Q

Why is neural tube important?

A

Because the entire central nervous system develops from its walls. Moreover, eventually tube will become ventricular system.

88
Q

What is neural crest?

A

some neural ectoderm is pinched off and comes to lie lateral to neural tube -> it eventually becomes peripheral nervous system

89
Q

mesoderm

A

internal body organized into segments will develop into bones and muscles -> forms prominent buldges on either sides of neural tube called somites = from them spinal column and skeletal muscles develop (somatic motor neurons)

90
Q

endoderm

A

gut + internal organs

91
Q

differentiation

A

process by which structures become more complex and functionally specialized -> first time it happens when 3 swellings develop = primary vesicles of neural tube

92
Q

what are 3 primary vesicles of neural tube?

A

prosencephalon (forebrain); mesencephalon (midbrain); rhombencephalon (hidbrain)

93
Q

anencephaly

A

degeneration of forebrain - fatal

94
Q

spina bifida

A

failureof posterior neural tube to close

95
Q

differentiation of presencephalon (forebrain)

A

telencephalon (sides) and diencephalon (middle part)

96
Q

telencephalon

A

forms cerebral hemispheres, olfactory bulbs, basal telencephalon

97
Q

diencephalon

A

thalamus and hypothalamus

98
Q

what are major gray matter systems?

A

cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulbes

99
Q

cerebral cortex

A

analyzes sensory input and commands motor output

100
Q

thalamus

A

sensory gateway of the cortex (for every sense EXCEPT olfaction) -> important for regulation of attention -> reciprocally connected to cortex (through internal capsule), conveys sensory infromation from contralateral side of the body

101
Q

hypothalamus

A

primitive behaviors (controls automatic and endocrine systems), super thermostat, also directs bodily responses via connections with pitutiary gland

102
Q

basal ganglia

A

one of biggest subcortical nucleic group, selects motor outputs, motor impulse, development of habitual sensory-motor behaviors

103
Q

olfactory bulbes

A

receive information from cells that sense chemicals in the nose and relay information caudally to part of cerebral cortex for further analysis

104
Q

What are major white matter systems?

A

cortical axons -> corpus callosum internal and external capsule, anterior and posterior commisure

105
Q

corpus callosum

A

forms axonal bridge that links cortical neurons of 2 cerebral hemispheres, crossing-over spot

106
Q

internal and external capsule

A

cortical axons projecting to deep brain structures and periphery = links cortex with brain stem, particularly with thalamus

107
Q

anterior and posterior commisure

A

interhemispheric connection to deep brain structures

108
Q

differentiation of mesencephalon (midbrain)

A

tectum (=roof) and tegmentum (=covering); axons descend from cortex to brain stem and spinal cord

109
Q

tectum

A

2 structures: superior colliculus (visual processing) and inferior colliculus (auditory processing) -> crude but fast reactions, life-saving situations

110
Q

tegmentum

A

substantia nigra => dopamine production and red nucleus (control of voluntary movements)

111
Q

cerebral aqueduct

A

in the middle (between tectum and tegmentum), CSF-filled

112
Q

What happens if you damage corticospinal tract?

A

loss of voluntary movement in opposite side of the body

113
Q

differentiation of rombencephalon (hindbrain)

A

cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata

114
Q

cerebellum

A

movement control -> receives massive axonal inputs from spinal cord (body position) and pons (intended movement goals)

115
Q

What happens if you damage cerebellum?

A

uncoordinated, inaccurate movements

116
Q

pons

A

switchboard connecting cerebral cortex to cerebellum

117
Q

medulla oblongata

A

medullary pyramids; axons cross in medulla = explanation why there is contralateral body control in the brain -> it has sensory functions = axons bring information (auditory. touch, taste)

118
Q

cochlear nuclei

A

audition; axons project to inferior colliculus

119
Q

What does decussation mean?

A

crossing of axons from one side to other

120
Q

locus coeruleus

A

synthesis of noreadrenaline

121
Q

raphe nuclei

A

synthesis of serotonin

122
Q

What will you see if you cut spinal cord?

A

gray matter has shape of butterfly => it is filled with CSF; whitish looking outer area indicates myelination; dorsal horn is located on upper part of butterfly’s wing (sensory inputs); intermediate zone = gray matter between horns; ventral horn is located on lower part of butterfly’s wing (sends information to other body parts)

123
Q

What consists the ventricular system of the brain?

A

lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral acqueduct, fourth ventricle

124
Q

What are neurotransmitters modulating forebrain during development?

A

acetylcholine, histamine

125
Q

What are neurotransmitters modulating midbrain during development?

A

dopamine

126
Q

What are neurotransmitters modulating hindbrain during development?

A

noradrenalin, serotonin

127
Q

What are main differences between human and mouse brain?

A

In humans, the expansion of cortex is evident = need for sulci, gyri and also there is curvature of NS axis. In rodents, brain is smooth and all vesicles are in linear position. Moreover, in rodents olfactory bulb is really big.

128
Q

What is mainly added in expansion of the cortex?

A

connections

129
Q

What are examples of curvature of NS axis?

A

hypothalamus under thalamus; midbrain, pons and cerebellum are under telencephalon, lateral ventricle has S-shape

130
Q

limbic cortex

A

involved in our behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses

131
Q

What are two gyri associated with limbic cortex?

A

gyrus cinguli and gyrus parahippocampus

132
Q

amygdala

A

primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making, and emotional responses (including fear, anxiety, and aggression); lies at the edge of hippocampus

133
Q

hippocampus

A

episodic memories, interesting stimuli, arousal, sea-horse shaped ->consists of cornu ammonis (CA1, CA2, CA3) and dentate gyrus

134
Q

What is main difference between hippocampus in humans and rodents?

A

In humans, the hippocampus needed to be pushed down due to cortical expansion and curvature of NS axis

135
Q

Why amygdala appears relatively bigger in rodents?

A

because there is less cortex

136
Q

What basal ganglia consists of?

A

caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, putamen

Intro to neuroscience (10 decks)

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