Lecture 2 - only the reading will be tested

Question 1

The concept of theory

Answer 1

it is an abstract term, when filling it in ->
Used in different ways that are incompatible
+ are often undefined

Question 2

Definition of theory

Answer 2

abstract definition:
a systematic and organized set of ideas that help understand and analyze political phenomena

Question 3

What is the purpose of theory?
What is it for?

Answer 3

• understanding and analyzing political phenomena
• bridge what we observe in the political world and how we explain or understand these (e.g. normative theories)
• not all theories are created equal: they differ in scope, focus, and how they’re applied

Question 4

textbook on empirical theory definition
+ criticism

Answer 4

a general set of explanatory claims about some specifiable empirical range
- doesn’t work for all types of theory: only focuses on explanation (specific to positivist empirical theories)

Question 5

explanation

Answer 5

trying to identify necessary and specific reasons as to why things happen

Question 6

What theoretical approahes are there

Answer 6

• behaviouralism
• rational choice
• (neo-) institutionalism
• constructivism
• marxism
• feminism
• normative political theory

all these approaches have different views on theory

Question 7

normative vs. empirical theories

Answer 7

normative theory =
- ethical and value-driven (often stemming from philosophy
- seek to evaluate or prescribe
- generalized set of categories that helps generate normative claims
e.g. liberal theory -> normative claims

empirical theory =
- grounded in observation, data collection, and factual analysis
- seek to explain or understand

Question 8

how is behaviouralism a theoretical approach?

is it a thin theory?

Answer 8

methodological

emphasizes observable and measurable behaviors
- context of voting patterns and public opinion

thin theory: not substantive (it doesn’t offer expectations), rather it is methodological: it says that we can/should identify patters (human behavior follows patterns)
- it makes epistemological and ontological claims rather than that it offers concrete/substantive expectations/explanations

Question 8

rational choice theory

Answer 8

works from the assumption that individuals often engage in politics based on calculated decisions, aiming to maximize their interest

substantive expectation: people will behave in calculated way

empirical + positivist observation

Question 9

institutionalism

Answer 9

highlights formal structures, institutions, and procedures play a central role in shaping political actions and outcomes

ambivalent in terms of interpretivism and positivism

substantive theory: self-interest maximalization

Question 10

positivism

Answer 10

geared towards providing causal explanations with the goal of explaining behavior

Question 11

hermeneutic approach

Answer 11

no such thing as generalized pattern behavior

internal reasons for action -> no generalized patterns possible -> no predictions possible

political science should be to understand specific cases, how they see/interpret their own behavior

generally: skeptical about the quantification of phenomena

Question 12

constructivism

Answer 12

underscores how politics is deeply influenced by shared beliefs, norms and ideas

generally: most constructivists will reject that behavior can be isolated into statistics in a way to generate expectations and predictions, pattern identification is impossible on a great scale

complication to ……

free choice -> two identical people in identical circumstances can still take other actions
- agency

Question 13

marxism

Answer 13

normative + empirical theory

stresses politics as an arena of class struggle, rooted in economic determinism and power dynamics

critical realism

Question 14

feminism

Answer 14

can be normative and empirical

focus on gender relations, patriarchal structures, and the fight for gender equality within the political sphere

can be positivist and interpretivist

Question 15

hypothesis meaning

Answer 15

a specific prediction, derived from a theory, that can be tested against empirical evidence

= by meaning positivist empirical approach (empirical positivist theories are dominant in political science)

Question 16

testing hypotheses

Answer 16

via falsification

Popper; trying to prove a claim that all swans are white, we can’t prove that positively by looking at white swans: we’ll never see all of them, even if we were able to we couldn’t go to the past -> no definitive answer. We should try to reject a hypothesis

Question 17

can hypotheses be proven correct?

Answer 17

no
the more often you fail to disprove a hypothesis, it is more likely to be correct, but a theory can never be proven to be correct

Question 18

alternatives to testing hypotheses

Answer 18

• interpretative inquiry
• thick description (Geertz): not causal explanations, but trying to understand a phenomena by describing its novel features in rich detail
• critical theory, including Marxist, feminist and post-colonial perspectives
• normative analysis

Question 19

substantive assumption vs. methodological assumption
the basics

Answer 19

substantive =
based on content of people behavior
- makes certain assumptions about human nature

e.g. rational choice theory (people behave in self-interest) + institutionalist (

methodological assumption =
human behavior overall, how to research it

Question 20

what is a concept in political science

Answer 20

points of reference, to capture and communicate specific political phenomena or ideas

conceptualization = articulating concepts
- to compare

they are abstract categories or representations that we compose on the world

Question 21

how do we decide if something is a good concept or a bad concept?

Answer 21

• clarity
• coherence: concepts can be easily understood without multiple possible interpretations
• logically consistency: elements of concepts shouldn’t logically conflict + related concepts must be mutually illegible
• usefulness: concept should add value to discussions, comparisons, and even policy-making (the clearer it is, the more useful it is)
  *usefulness is also: when you take a definition that doesn’t match with the broad acceptance, it isn’t useful

Question 22

concepts are contested

Answer 22

concepts don’t exist in the world, we make them

people have different definitions of concepts

when researching -> study the literature for definitions, pick one, or introduce a new one

be clear which definition you take

Question 23

operationalization

Answer 23

processs of making concepts measurable
*particularly important for empirical theories

!!we shouldn’t ‘retro-fit’ concepts to what we happen to be able to measure easily

it is important that operational measures truly reflect the core essence of a concept (though there can be pragmatic concessions)

Question 24

good definition of populism
e.g. proffessor

Answer 24

political approach or movement characterized by a charismatic leader and direct appeals to the masses, emphasizing the interests of ordinary people, contrasted to an entrenched, corrupt elite

Question 25

bad definition of populism
e.g.

Answer 25

when a political leader exploits the emotions of ordinary people, like when Donald Trump gave election speeches accusing Hillary Clinton of criminal behavior

Question 26

populism as an ideational concept
+ criticism

Answer 26

thin-centered ideology that considers society to be separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups ‘‘the pure people’’ and ‘‘the corrupt elite’’ (Mudde)

thin: not much substantive commitments (idea that society is divided between elites and masses)

criticism:
- is it internally consistent? : ideology and thin/empty?

Question 27

populism as discourse

Answer 27

an anti-status quo discourse that simplifies the political space by symbolically dividing society between the people and its ‘other’

focus on discourse: written and spoken words of populists (not on ideology)

criticism:
- populism measured in words, is it useful , does it not miss useful visual, aesthetic and performative cues of populist politics

Question 28

populism as an organizational concept

Answer 28

political strategy through which a personalistic leader seeks or exercises government power based on direct, unmediated, uninstitutionalized suport from large numbers of mostly unorganized followers (Weyland)

criticism:
- if it is limited like that, what do we do with actors that are often described as populist that are highly structured, formalized political actors

Question 29

populism as a stylistic concept

Answer 29

performative political style that features:
- appeals to the people versus the elite
- bad manners
- performance of crisis, breakdown or threat
(Moffit)

criticism: ‘bad manners’ criterion self-referential?
- Can it be sufficiently clear and
consistent in different contexts?