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Developmental > Lecture 2 - Development ToM > Flashcards

Lecture 2 - Development ToM Flashcards

1
Q

What is the Theory of Mind

A

Insight people hold mental states and these govern behaviour (act according our perception reality)
Allows make sense social world - predict and explain

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2
Q

What is Desire-based ToM?

A

Desires are idiosyncratic (personal and subjective) constantly changing

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3
Q

Do children understand that other people may have desires that differ from theirs?

A

Repacholi and Gopbik 1997
18 month olds but not 14 month olds understood experimenters desired food differed from their own

Understanding desire is subjective mental state that differs from person to person

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4
Q

What is Belief Based ToM?

A

Distinction between mind and world
Requires notion person has representation of world, contents of which may be quite different from contents of world itself
Shift from situation based to representation based

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5
Q

What are false belief tasks

A

Test whether child can represent what another person believes in contrast to their own beliefs or reality

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6
Q

What is the FB Sally-Ann Task

A

One object is moved from one location to next without child watching
Sally puts ball in basket. Ann moves ball to box without Sally watching.
Child asked where Sally will look for ball

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7
Q

What is the consequence of the Sally-Ann task?

A

Child has to inhibit own knowledge of ball in box and understand their is a FB

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8
Q

What is the Maxi task of FB?

A

Maxi puts chocolate in his cupboard. Whilst he is out playing his mother puts it in fridge. Maxi comes back wanting his chocolate. Child asked where Maxi will look.

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9
Q

Results of Maxi FB task

A

Poor performance (failure understand FB) children under 5 years old

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10
Q

Who investigated the Smartie Task of FB?

A

Perner 1987

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11
Q

What is the smartie task of FB?

A

Child shown smarties tube. Guess what is inside
Then shown pencils inside
Pencils put back in and sealed
Then asked what their friend would think is in the smarties tube
Age 3 poor performance

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12
Q

What does Gopnik add to the Smartie Tube Test

A

Asked children when you first saw the tube what did you think was inside it
3-4 yrs old difficulty with this task

Can only consider current mental state not previous

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13
Q

Interpreting the findings of FB tasks

A

3 years old usually fail
4 years old usually pass
Around this age acquire ToM
Stage like development

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14
Q

Do FB tasks underestimate younger children’s ability?

A

Lack of story or question comprehension - question doesn’t make sense

Can younger children show better performance when tasks are simplified?

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15
Q

What happens when we clarify the test question for FB tasks

A

Siegel and Beattie 1991
“Where will Maxi look first of all?”
Performance improves at 3 years but not significantly

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16
Q

Who investigated the BIG DEBATE on development of children

A

Wellman at al 2001

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17
Q

Who are the 2 opposing sides of the BIG DEBATE

A

Boosters

Scoffers

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18
Q

What do the Boosters believe in the BIG DEBATE

A

Early onset view
Early competence masked by performance limitations
Task manipulations May enhance performance
3 year olds be able perform above Chance

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19
Q

What do the Scoffers believe in the BIG DEBATE

A

Delayed onset view
Conceptual change in understanding
Developmental change on FB tasks reflect genuine conceptual change
Task demands/processing limitations should not account completely for performance

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20
Q

Wellman, Cross and Watson 2001: meta analysis of 178 studies

A

Support substantial development over pre-school years

Below 3.5 years 80% incorrect systematically choosing own belief

4 years 50% correct

56 months 75% correct

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21
Q

What variables improved performance on Wellmans et al meta analysis

A

Deceptive motive
Active participation
Salience if mental state improve performance

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22
Q

Summary of Wellmans et al 2001 meta analysis

A

In line with conceptual change
In line with Scoffers account
Manipulating variables improved performance across all ages
None improved performance of 3 year olds above Chance

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23
Q

What 2 factors contribute to ToM development?

A

Social experience

Biological maturation

24
Q

Outline social experience contributing to ToM development?

A

Aiding understanding mental states

Arises from interactions from other people

25
Q

Outline biological maturation contributing to ToM development?

A

Enables children to express their understanding of mental states arising from improvement in executive functioning

26
Q

What does Harris 1999 see as the Role of Experience

A

Conversations crucial exposing children to other people’s perspectives

Provide children with vocabulary needed discuss and reflect on mental states

27
Q

What is the role of experience of ToM

A

Children with older siblings show earlier ToM - more exposure
Older siblings talk about what they want

Children whose parents talk about mental states more understanding FB earlier than other children

28
Q

What is the Universality of Cross-Cultural Comparisons of ToM

A

Callaghan et al 2005
Peru, India, Canada, Thailand consistent findings of failure at 3 years old but could express understanding at 5 years
Industrialised and rural societies show similar developmental shift between 3 and 5 years

29
Q

Who created the ToM scale

A

Wellman and Liu 2004

30
Q

What is the ToM scale

A

Diverse Desires

Diverse Beliefs

Knowledge Access

False Belief

Hidden Emotions

31
Q

What are diverse desires and diverse beliefs

A

Diverse desires: people can have different desires for same thing

Diverse beliefs: people can have different beliefs about same situation

32
Q

What is knowledge access, false belief and hidden emotions

A

Knowledge Access: something can be true, but someone might not know that

False Belief: something can be true, but someone may falsely believe something different

Hidden Emotions: someone can feel one way but display a different emotion

33
Q

What across Cross Cultural differences did Wellman et al 2006 find

A

Children in Western countries have diverse beliefs before understanding knowledge access

Chinese and Iranian children had knowledge access before diverse beliefs

34
Q

What can explain Wellman et als 2006 cross cultural differences

A

Differences in cultural values
Collectivist - parents don’t tolerate children holding independent views
vs Individualism

35
Q

What is the role of executive functioning

A

Children’s failures on ToM tasks may stem not from pure conceptual limitations but rather from problems translating conceptual knowledge into successful action

Critical role executive functions ability pass TM tasks

36
Q

What are Executive Functions and what are the 3 main Executive functions

A

Set domain general cognitive abilities help us control and guide our attention and behaviour

  1. Inhibition
  2. Cognitive Flexibility
  3. Working Memory
37
Q

What is inhibition in executive functioning

A

Ignoring distracting info or suppressing unwanted responses

Preventing reaching for bar chocolate

Bear/Dragon Task. STROOP

Impulsivity/Inhibition not developed by 3 years can’t inhibit in Maxi Task where they know where chocolate is

38
Q

What is cognitive flexibility in executive functioning

A

Responding to same thing in different ways depending on context

Multiple passwords

Wisconsin card sorting task. Task switching paradigm

39
Q

What is Working Memory in executive functioning

A

Holding important info or goal in mind
Manipulating info in head

Mental shopping list. Mental arithmetic.

Digit span. Spatial span.

40
Q

Role of Executive Functioning in FB tasks

A

Cognitive Inhibition/ disengage from salient real world attend to intangible abstract representation

Response Inhibition: inhibit a prepotent or habitual way responding I.e. pointing to true location of object

Working memory: indicate correct answer whilst holding in mind 2 different and conflicting representations

41
Q

When do Executive Functions develop

A

Develop frontal lobes takes long time

Important developments in inhibitory control take placed first 6 years life. Marked improvement between 3-6 - Diamond and Taylor 1996

42
Q

Role of Executive Functioning in FB task of Bear/Dragon

A

Bear = good. Dragon = bad. Bear asks us to do something we do it. Dragon asks do something we do not.

Development in inhibitory control and ToM May be related
IC affects emergence and expression mental state knowledge of ToM development

43
Q

Who investigated the Bear/Dragon Paradigm

A

Carlson and Moses 2001

Sabbagh et al 2007

44
Q

Implicit understanding of FB Moll et al 2016

A

Investigated children’s facial expressions as indices of their belief understanding

3 years: aware conflict between persons belief and reality showing signs suspense - lip biting, brow furrowing when observing FB

45
Q

Implicit understanding of FB Clements and Perner 1994

A

Period implicit understanding FB precedes onset of explicit
Unexpected transfer task
86% over 2 years 11 months implicit measure of looking pattern was indicative FB understanding

46
Q

Southgate, Senju and Csibra 2007 implicit measures FB

A

Anticipatory looking earlier FB understanding
Bear puts something in box then women turns away and does not see bear moving it into another box

Non-verbal prompt. Toy removed from scene avoid reality bias

47
Q

Earlier FB understanding in infancy - Onishi and Baillargeon 2005

A

Nonverbal Task year implicit FB understanding in 15 month olds
Violation of Expectancy method

48
Q

Who investigate Violation of Expectancy method

A

Onishi and Baillargeon 2005

49
Q

What is the Violation of Expectancy method telling us

A

If infant looks longer at inconsistent even taken as evidence that they are surprise

Indicates some level knowledge about what should happen

50
Q

Outline Onishi and Baillargeon 2005 study on looking time in 15 month olds

A

Woman puts toy in box. Toy is moved when woman not looking. Woman comes back and either searches in original location or where it actually is.

51
Q

Outline results of Onishi and Baillargeon 2005

A

FB understanding look for longer when she looks in correct location = potion of Expectancy
Infants expect searching be consistent with their beliefs about object location not objects reality
ToM is innate?

52
Q

What is Heyes 2014 criticism of FB tasks

A

Infants may represent events in these experiments as colours, shapes, and movements rather than as actions on objects by agents

53
Q

Theory-Theory ToM Rules

A

Form and revise coherent set rules. Failure due to incorrect or misapplied rules.
Initially relation between seeing and knowing. Rigidly follow: seeing/being told = knowing (Access rule)

54
Q

Evidence of Access Rule

A

3-4yrs attribute knowledge to observer who sees or it told content of container.
Ignorance oversteer with neither informational access

55
Q

What is the No-Access rule

A

Overapplication
Over extend rule to form rule that: not seeing or being told = ignorance
I walk -> I walk-ed
I run -> I run-ed

56
Q

Evidence for No-Access Rule

A

Attribute ignorance observer who has not seen/being told even if observer some other source information about ever
Ignore non-visual sources of info

57
Q

Sodian and Wimmer 1987 study on Over Application of Rules

A

Child not shown contents container e.g. m&ms bag.
Told they took something out bag and put it in box. Over 6yrs understand it was m&m.
Asked if someone else same info know it was an m&m believed no = inference neglect
Knowledge = inference without awareness

Developmental (10 decks)

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