Lecture 2 Flashcards
What is development?
- Development is combination of nature and nurture
Who is Alfred Binet?
- He was a French psychologist
- Known for developing the first widely used intelligence test
- Simple skills do not show a child’s full intelligence
- These five factors include fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory
What does an intelligence test do?
- It helps determine
different abilities within different ages
What is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale ?
- Test that can be administered to both children and adults
- One’s ability to adapt and constructively solve problems in the environment
- Reflects Caroll’s three stratum model
What is Carroll’s three stratum model?
- The three layers or stratas
- They’re defined as representing: narrow, broad, and general cognitive ability.
- It can help find observable differences among individuals in the performance tasks
What does intelligence do?
- Influences cognitive function
How does intelligence form? Part 1
- The prefrontal cortex has fluid gives you ability to think on the spot
- This peaks at 20 and over time decreases
How does intelligence form? Part 2
- Then it crystallizes and you develop factual knowledge about world
- As well as long term memory from previous experiences, verbal ability, early in life to old age
How does intelligence form? Part 3
7 forms:
- Word fluency
- Verbal meaning
- Reasoning
- Spatial visualization
- Numbering
- Rote memory
- Perceptual speed
How does intelligence affect your cognitive processes?
- You learn how to process numbers and other distinct processes
- You learn how to process information and analyze things (everyday tasks like reading and writing)
- “Many processes” allows for more precise specifications of mechanisms involved in intelligence
What is the Bronfenbrenner model?
- It’s a model that shows bio-ecological of a child’s development
- A child is embedded within environments
- The model depicts the child in the center and surrounded by an immediate environment, then outer circles of less influence (look at chart)
How do genetics contribute to intelligence?
- Involve three processes:
- Passive: arise when children are raised by their biological parents
- Evocative: effects of the genotype emerge when children are influenced by others behaviours
- Active: children choosing environments that they enjoy
What was the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment?
- Conducted by Bradley and Caldwell
- They observed children from birth to three years of age
What’s Gardner’s Theory?
- The Multiple Intelligences Theory claimed that people possess at least 8 kinds of intelligence:
- Linguistic
- Logical-mathematical
- Spatial abilities
- Musical
- Naturalistic
- Bodily-kinesthetic
- Intrapersonal
- Interpersonal
- The ninth ability might be present- existential intelligence
Who is John Carroll? Part 1
- He created: Three Stratum Theory of Intelligence
- Top of hierarchy is g (general intelligence)
- Middle several general abilities (fluid and crystallized and seven basic forms)
- Bottom are specific processes
Who is John Carroll? Part 2
- General intelligence influences all moderately general abilities
- Both general intelligence and moderately general abilities influence the specific processes
- All levels are essential for intelligence
How do we measure intelligence?
- Ceci and Sterngerg
- measuring intelligence is complex and requires assessing all forms of intelligence (not just the ones on tests)
- Must be observable
What is the Theory of Successful Intelligence?
- Theory of Successful Intelligence:
- Analytic abilities (linguistic, mathematics and spatial skills)
- Practical abilities (reasoning)
- Creative abilities (intellectual flexibility, innovation)
What are the three components of personality?
- Dr. Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939)
- Id: basic urges
- Ego: rational components of mind
- Superego: conscience, morality
- Conflict: ego tries to control id, superego tried to make sure morals are there
What are the Freudian Stages?
- Development progresses through different stages
- These stages were universal in existence and order
- You could pass to other stage whenever
- Changes in environment and maturation = stage progression
What were Freud’s contributions?
- Importance of unconscious
- Importance of childhood to determine later development
- Internal conflict
Who was Erik Erikson?
- Psychologist who developed the theory of psychosocial development
- The concept of an identity crisis
What did Erik Erikson do?
- Study combat soldiers
- Child rearing (in Sioux and Yoruk), as well as adolescent behaviour in India
- Play in normal and abnormal children
- Adolescent identity, popular culture
How did Erik Erikson add to Freuds five stages of childhood stages?
- Stronger influence on culture than Freud
- Theories are in order, but do not build on each other
- Pass a stage and can return to stage
- Direct observation of children, cross-cultural comparisons
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 1
Trust- Mistrust (0-1)
- Infant learns whether or not they can rely on another human, typically mother
Responsive mother- child learns to trust
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 2
Autonomy- Shame (2-3)
- Child learns whether or not they can be independent from others
- Firm and supportive parents- child initiates own behaviour
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 3
Initiative- Guilt (4-5)
- Child learns whether or not are capable of doing things on their own
- Child learns to succeed- develop initiatives
fail= develop guilt
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 4
Industry- Inferiority (6-13)
- Child learns whether work is competent compared to others
- Succeed in school- develop a sense of industry
- fail= sense of inferiority
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 5
Identity- Identity Diffusion (adolescence)
- Individual successfully develops identity, or fails
- Teenager needs to a) explore identities and then b) commit to identity
- Failure= stagnation, confusion or settling for wrong identity
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 6
Intimacy- Isolation (Young Adult)
- Learns whether they can share life with another or alone
- Succeed- need to be able to open up to others
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 6
Generativity- Stagnation (Adult)
- Learned whether contributing anything meaningful or lacks meaning
- Contributing: pass
- Lifes work is meaningless: fail
What is Erik Erikson Theory?
Stage 7
Integrity- Despair (Old Age)
- Whether or not can accept their life as positive
- If yes: believe their life had puspose
- If no: feel life has been wasted
What are the different perspectives of Learning Theory?
- Pure Behaviourism: Skinner- nothing matters except behaviour
- Social Behaviourism: Bandura- tempered by individual and environment, everything works with and through them
What is Skinner’s Learning Theory?
- Operant Conditioning: actions followed by good outcomes are likely to recur, actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur
- Operant response is a behaviour that operates on the environment to produce an effect that is typically positive
- Known as instrumental responses, they are like tools in that they enable an animal to accomplish a task
What is Albert Bandura Learning Theory?
Emphasis on Learning:
- Social Learning Theory: focuses on learning, but broaden context and scope of different types of learning
- Considers methods of beyond classical conditioning and operant conditioning
- Observational learning is more frequent and important sources of learning
What experiment did Albert Bandura do?
Observational Aggression
- Bobo doll experiment
- Groundbreaking study on aggression led by Bandura
- Demonstrated that children are able to learn through the observation of adult behaviour
What did Jean Piaget focus on?
- Structuralism
- Early structures lead towards later structures
- Basic structure is a scheme-organized pattern of behaviour
A-not-b error: - Tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than the new location where it was hidden
What is deferred imitation?
Deferred imitation: repitition of other people’s behaviour in substantial time after it occured
What is symbolic representation?
Symbolic representation: use of one object to stand for another
What is egocentrism?
Egocentrism: tendancy to percieve the world from one point of view
What is centration?
Centration: tendacy to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
What is the conservation concept?
Conservation concept: idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change the object’s key properties
1
What are the four stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
- Object Permanence: knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.
- Recognition of ability to control object and acts intentionally
2
What are the four stages of cognitive development?
Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7)
- Begins to use language
- Egocentric thinking difficulty seeing things from other viewpoints
- Classified objects by single feature e.i. colour
3
What are the four stages of cognitive development?
Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11)
- Logical thinking
- Recognizes conservation of numbers, mass and weight
- Classifies objects bu several features and can place them in order
4
What are the four stages of cognitive development?
Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood).
- Logical thinking about abstract propositions
- Concerned with the hypothetical and the future
- Create Hypotheses and test
Who is Lev Vygotsky?
- Russian psychologist: wrote about child development in the 20’s and 30’s
- Communism prevented widespread knowledge of his work until much later
- Believed that cognitive development was result of innate/evolved mechanisms interacting with external social inputs
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
Zone of Proximal Development
- Area between their individual capability and their capability when paired with someone more experienced
- New knowledge is learned most quickly when it’s in the Zone of Proximal Development
What is Scaffolding?
- More experienced partner reworks the new knowledge into something that’s easier to learn
- Scaffolding is to be slowly withdrawn, allowing the child to take on a greater and greater share of the learning responsibility
What is Meta-attention?
- Meta-attention is the knowledge of one’s attentional/concentration/focus ability
- Reaches near-adult capability by around age 8
- Helpful in maintaining selective attention- focusing only on what’s important
Socio-cultural Perspective
- Language is important for cognitive development as it is the gateway to complex social interactions
- Emphasize that other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to child’s development
- Views learning as moment-by-moment, involving specific skills, attributes, and physiological capacities
- Does not focus on stages, domain vs. general
What is a domain specific?
Domain specific: information about a certain area of content
What is Nativism?
Nativism: theory that infants have substantial innate knowledge of evolutionary important domains
What is Constructivism?
Constructivism: theory that infants build increasingly advanced understanding by combining rudimentary innate knowledge with subsequent experiences
What is ethology?
- Study of human behaviour
-
What is ethology?
- Study of human behaviour
- Many species have species type behaviours that differentiate from other species
- Unique physiology of the organism underlies these species-typical behaviours (biological preperation)
- Human voice box
- Focuses on studying species-typical behaviours
- Initially focused on fixed action behaviours which are highly reliable (do not change) from one instance to another, triggered by signal stimuli
What are Species-Specific Behaviours?
- Human facial expressions are species-specific behaviours
- Some of them are also fixed action behaviours
- Facial patterns are present even amongst individuals that have never observed them, strongly suggests these behaviours are innate
Introduction to Ethology: Historical Perspectives
Who did Lorenz focus on?
Lorenz
- Pioneered studies of genetically programmed behaviour (instinct)
- Concept of imprinting
- Coded animal behaviours, emotions and displays
Introduction to Ethology: Historical Perspectives
Do did Tinbergen focus on?
- Field biology
- Developed ethologys 4 areas of inquiry
What are Tinbergen’s Four Levels?
- Immediate (causation)- social and neuropsychology
- Ontogenetic (developmental)
- Functional (evolution)
- Phylogenetic (historical)- cultural and evolutionary
Why are Tinbergen’s Four Levels important?
- Many students of animal behaviour have become so fascinated with its directness
- “Toward what end?” or Yet the great question…“How?”
- It is a regrettable symptom of the limitations inherent to the human mind that very few scientists are able to keep both questions in mind simultaneously.”
- Lorenz
What are Chall’s five stages of reading development?
- Stage 0 (birth to the beginning of grade one): key prerequisites for reading, knowing the alphabet and gaining phonemic awareness (individual sounds in words)
- Stage 1 (1st to 2nd grade): phonological recoding skills (translate letters into sounds, blend sounds into words)
- Stage 2 (2nd to 3rd grade): fluency in reading simple material
- Stage 3 (4th to 8th grade): acquire reasonably complex new information from written text
- Stage 4 (8th to 12th grade): understanding information presented from single perspective but in multiple perspectives
