Lecture 2 Flashcards
What are models used for?
To explain
Origins of abnormal behaviour
How to treat it
How to prevent it
List 4 aeitological
Genetics
Biochemistry
Neuroanatomy
Endocrine system
What are the four studies of gene-environment interaction?
- The pedigree method
- Classical twin design
- Adoption studies
- Molecular genetics
The pedigree method
Proband (person diagnosed with the disorder) identified
and then it is looked at how prevalent is the disorder within their family.
It’s tricky because families share environments, so it is difficult to attribute disorder to genetics (nature) of shared environment (nurture).
The classical twin studies
Looking at comparing concordance rates (the likelihood that both twins have that disorder) for monozygotic (identical) and diazygotic (fraternal) twins
Adoption Studies
Compares the concordance of a disorder in adopted children to
- their biological relatives
- their adoptive relatives
Molecular genetics
- Candidate gene studies
- Is one allele (variant of a gene) is that more frequently seen in people with the disorder than in people without the disorder? - Genome wide association studies
- Assess common variation across the entire genome
- Disorders are typically polygenic (influenced by multiple genes) as well as environmental factors
How does information transmitted through a neuron?
Information is received by the dendrites which is then transmitted down the axon (trunk), finally reaching the axon terminal, where messages are sent out to other neurons. The axon terminal is separated from other neurons via a synapse ( a small gap filled with fluid). Here, information is transmitted chemically through neurotransmitters, which are released into the synapse and received at the receptors on the dendrites of another neuron.
Biochemistry as aeitiology
- What do most drug therapies do?
- What is the overall hypothesis?
Most drug therapies look at INCREASING or DECREASING the activity of specific neurotransmitters.
Overall hypothesis is that people with mental disorders either have an excess or deficit in neurotransmitters.
Name the 4 different neurotransmitter systems?
- Serotonin
- GABA
- Noradrenaline
- Dopamine
What does serotonin do?
Serotonin regulates behaviour, mood and thought processes
What is low serotonin actiivity associated with?
Aggression
Suicide
Impulsive overeating
Hyper-sexual behaviour
What drugs primarily affect the serotonin system?
Tricyclic antidepressants
Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors (e.g., Prozac)
- This means there is more of that neurotransmitter left
in the synapse.
What does GABA do?
Inhibits a variety of behaviours and emotions
Reduces overall arousal (anxiolytic effects = reduces anxiety)
What makes attaching GABA to the receptors of specialised neurons easier?
Benzodiazepines
What secretes Noradrenaline (aka Norephinephrine)?
the adrenal glands
Which circuits in the CNS is noradrenaline implicated to be?
- Hindbrain - in an area that control basic bodily functions such as respiration
- Circuit which influences our fight or flight responses
Why does dopamine influence many of the same behaviours as serotonin?
Because dopamine circuits merge and cross with serotonin circuits
What is dopamine responsible for?
Relays messages to control movements, moods, thought processes
What are the main structures of the brain and describe their functions?
Hindbrain
- Involved in sustaining life, regulation of sleep
Mid-brain
- Regulation of some motor activities (fighting and sex) and sleep
Forebrain
- Site of most sensory, emotional, and cognitive functioning (limbic system falls in with forebrain)
What does damage to the reticular activating system in the mid-brain lead to?
Leads to disturbances in sexual behaviour, aggression and sleep
What does damage to the orbitofrontal cortex lead to?
Leads to disinhibited behaviour (lack of impulse control)
What are the functions of the endocrine hormones?
Helps regulate physiological responses
Co-ordinate internal bodily processes with external events
Prolonged stress can cause disturbance in endocrine system
List types of biological treatments
- Electro-convulsive shock treatment
- can be effective for forms of depression
- side effects: short term memory loss - Pharmacotherapy (use of meds)
- Lithium (as a drug) was found to reduce agitation for patients in manic episodes.
- Side effects: anti-depressant induced suicidal ideation and behaviour (6-13%)
- Overreliance on prescription drugs
Name the five stages of psychosexual development and age stages
- Oral: 0-1.5 yrs
- Anal: 1-3 yrs
- Phallic: 3-4 yrs
- Latency: 5-12 yrs
- Genital: 11-20 yrs
What is the psychosexual (Freudian) thing about (referring to previous flashcard)
The idea is that if we experience particular trauma/difficulties at these different stages of development, we can become fixated at these stages, which can have an impact on us as adults.
List and describe the three parts to personality
The ID
- Motivated by biologically driven instincts
- Operates at unconscious level according to pleasure principle and wish fulfilment
- “I want that right now”
The SUPEREGO
- Conscience and moral ideal
- “Good people don’t think about those things”
The EGO
- regulates between the two parts
- Motivated by the reality principle
- Uses defence mechanisms to ward off unpleasant
feelings (repression, projection)
- “Let’s figure out a way to work together”
How does parts of personality relate to disturbances toward individual?
These three parts are thought to often come into conflict, thus giving rise to problems or difficulties to individual.
According to Freud’s view of symptom formation, how are symptoms formed?
Traumatic (childhood) experience ==> (Unhealthy-Healthy) Defence mechanisms ==> Symptoms
According to Freud’s view of symptom removal (treatment), how are symptoms removed?
Free association ==> Recovery of material ==> Awareness and interpretation (with help from therapist)
What did Carl Jung contribute to the psychodynamic model?
He placed less emphasis on the biological drives
And looked at collective unconscious (within societies and across generations) and archetypes (memory traces of past generations which are passed down to people).
What did Erikson contribute to the psychodynamic model?
Added to Freud’s stages of development by looking across the lifespan. This can be important for informing treatment actions based on their particular life trend.
Formation of ego identity and psychosocial development.
Life-span approach: Eight stages of development
What are the contributions of Psychodynamic Theory
- Impact of childhood experiences on later development
- The impact of the unconscious on behaviour
- The continuity of normality and abnormality
- Demystified mental illness
- Defence mechanisms
- Transference (client treating the psychologist as a significant other figure) and counter-transference (where psychologist is transferring difficulties issues onto client)
What are the limitations of Psychodynamic Theory?
- Resistance to empirical investigation
- Emphasises abnormality rather than psychological health
- Hasn’t contributed to prevention or early intervention methods
What is the Humanistic model? (Origins by Carl Rogers)
An explicitly positive view of human nature
- This idea that humans are born with the natural
inclination to be friendly and driven to self-actualise
(to achieve the best version of ourselves possible)
Free will: we control, choose and are responsible for our actions
How does the Humanistic model explain abnormal behaviour?
Receiving UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD (everybody has a basic need to receive positive regard from significant others to accept our authentic selves unconditionally)
If not receiving that, then will develop UNCONDITIONAL SELF-REGARD, which can ultimately lead to DISTRESS if positive regard not received.
What are the three core concepts of client centred therapy
- Be ACCEPTING of the client (non-judgement)
- CONGURENCE (therapist being authentic self)
- UNDERSTANDING of others and the client
What was the Behavioural Model about? (Origins by John Watson): First wave of behaviour therapy
Rejected introspection (looking inwards and unconscious processes)
Focused on behaviour which could be observed and measured
LEARNING has the key role in the development of behaviour
What are the principal modes of learning?
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
- Observational learning/modelling
In operant conditioning what is Extinction?
suppressing behaviour by removing the reinforcers
In operant conditioning what is Discriminative stimulus?
External events that tell the person that if it performs a certain behaviour, a certain consequence will follow
What are the assumptions of Observational learning/Modelling?
Observer must attend to the model and understand the connection between the model’s behaviour and the contingent reinforcement
Observer must store what has been learned in memory and recall the information
The observer must be capable of performing the required behaviour themselves
What are the behavioural treatments relating to classical conditioning techniques?
Systematic desensitisation (teaching relaxation at same time)
Aversion therapy
*Exposure therapy: relearning connections
What are the behavioural treatments relating to operant conditioning techniques?
Positive reinforcement
Extinction
Token economies
*Behavioural activation: reengagement with rewards (get out and do things that are rewarding/sense of achievement). This is to get them receive positive reinforcement from environment again
What are the behavioural treatments relating to modelling techniques?
*Social skills training (role plays)
What are the benefits of the behavioural model?
- Theory and treatments can be tested in the laboratory
- Laboratory research supports the behavioural model
- Many techniques remain useful in practice
What are the limitations of the behavioural model?
- No indisputable evidence that abnormal behaviour is
due to improper conditioning - Too simplistic
- Overemphasis on learning and behaviour and not
enough emphasis on thoughts, emotions or
unconscious processes - This model could not account for human cognition
What are Beck’s 4 common cognitive distortions?
Arbitrary Inference
Overgeneralizing (Happened in this context therefore will happen in other contexts)
Dichotomous thinking (Black and White thinking)
Magnification & Minimisation (magnifying negative and minimising positive events)
What are the benefits of the cognitive model?
Amenable to empirical enquiry
Complements behavioural strategies
What are limitations of cognitive model?
Precise role of cognitions in psychopathology unspecified
Narrowness of scope
No link between cognitive therapy and cognitive science
Lack of evidence that cognitive therapy added to behavior therapy
Lack of evidence for hypothesized mediators of change in CBT
What behaviour therapies were present during the third wave?
Dialectical Behaviour Therapy
Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MCBT)
Acceptance & Commitment Therapy (ACT)
What is ACT?
A therapy approach that uses acceptance and mindfulness processes to produce greater psychological flexibility
What underpins ACT?
That our psychological problems originate from thought and language
What are the 6 core processes of ACT regarding psychological rigidity? (therefore the opposite will be true for attaining psychological flexibility)
Non-accepting of self Person being attached to past or future self (not in present moment) Lack of values clarify or contact Inaction or disorganised ability Attached to conceptualised self Fusion (being fused with our self)
What is Compassion-Focused Therapy (CFT)
Building of compassion-focused motives as an organizing system
Works with Fears, Blocks, and Resistances to compassion and positive emotion (such as self-criticism and shame)
What is the Three Circles Model and how does it relate to CFT?
Threat and self-protect
- Protection and safety seeking, fight/flight
- see emotions like anger & anxiety
Drive and achievement
- Incentive focused, achieving, status, wanting
- emotions like joy & achievement
Soothing and connection
- Content, safeness, calm, not-wanting
- connecting with others
CFT is focusing on trying to find a balance between these three systems.
What is Diathesis-Stress Model?
It is a simplified way of describing multiple influences on abnormal behaviour. Essentially it is a framework looking at an individuals vulnerabilities and stressors that may have occurred on top of that to lead to a particular mental disorder.
