Lecture 19 Flashcards

1
Q

Why are organisms where they are?

A

slide 4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Ranges & Distributions

A
  • Range: the spatial extent of a
    species
  • Distribution: the spatial extent of a
    population
  • Individuals do not occupy the entire
    distribution because not all areas
    are suitable habitat
  • Species with extensive geographic
    distribution typically encounter a
    wider range of environmental
    conditions and are generalists

slide 5

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Ranges & Distributions

A

slide 6-7

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Endemism

A
  • Endemism: Small restricted
    geographic ranges; found in a
    location and nowhere else
  • Constrained by isolation
    and/or narrow habitat
    requirements
  • Often of conservation concern
  • Often on islands

slide 8

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Range Expansion

A
  • Range size can change over time with shift in climate, resources, change in
    competitors or predators, or introduction

slide 9

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Evolutionary Implications of Distributions

A
  • Isolation & dispersal influence
    migration and gene flow
  • Migration reduces population
    differentiation
  • Range size impacts genetic drift
  • Allele frequency changes as a
    result of random chance more
    common in small populations
  • Ecological conditions (biotic
    and abiotic features of the
    ecosystem) influence the
    strength and nature of natural
    selection

slide 10-11

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

The Ecological Niche

A
  • Ecological niche: the range of
    environmental conditions and
    essential resources needed for
    a species to survive and
    reproduce
  • Conditions must fall within an
    organism’s environmental
    tolerance for it to persist
  • Organismal traits are related to
    their environment: they
    determine where they will
    thrive as well as limit where
    they can exist
  • Each combination of
    environmental conditions
    present unique constraints on
    organisms
  • Adaptations allow species to
    thrive under a specific set of
    environmental conditions
  • These conditions reflect
    requirements and adaptations:
  • Physiological
  • Morphological
  • Behavioral

slide 13-14

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

The Ecological Niche

A
  • Developed by Joseph Grinnell
    and Charles Elton in 1920’s
  • Grinnell focused on habitat and
    the limitations of the physical
    environment
  • Elton emphasized species
    interactions
  • G. Evelyn Hutchinson: niches are
    multidimensional!
    “N-dimensional hypervolume”
  • Each axis is a variable relating to
    resource needs or environmental
    constraints

slide 15-17

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Fundamental Niche

A
  • Fundamental Niche: the range of
    environmental conditions tolerated by
    a species
  • Describes the potential habitat space
    of an organism and constraints on
    where it can be found based on
    environmental conditions
  • Each species has limits beyond which
    it cannot survive
  • As environmental conditions change in
    time and space, potential distribution
    changes

slide 18

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Realized Niche

A
  • Realized Niche: the actual habitat
    occupied by a species as a
    consequence of species interactions
    and barriers to movement
  • The realized niche is a subset of the
    fundamental niche
  • Describes the actual habitat space of
    an organism based on where it has
    been found
  • Reflects the abiotic constraints
    (environmental tolerance) AND biotic
    interactions

slide 19-20

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Quantifying Niche Space

A
  • Ecological niche
    models (also known
    as bioclimatic
    envelope model,
    species distribution
    model) relate
    climate to known
    distribution
  • Results of model can be used to map potential geographic distribution under
    past, present, and future conditions

slide 21-24

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Realized Niche: Species Interactions?

A
  • Species interactions shape the
    realized niche too!
  • Negative interactions
    (competition, predation, disease)
    can limit the realized niche
  • Positive interactions
    (commensalism, mutualism) can
    modify the fundamental niche by
    directly or indirectly enhancing
    survival and reproduction of
    other species
  • Species interactions also interact
    with the abiotic environment

slide 25

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Realized Niche: Overlap

A
  • Competitive exclusion principle: two species cannot coexist if they occupy
    exactly the same niche (competing for identical resources)
  • The resource gradient will be divided among the species to minimize overlap
  • Species may evolve to reduce niche overlap resulting in niche partitioning and
    increasing specialization

slide 26

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Niche Partitioning

A
  • Each species exploits a
    portion of resources
    unavailable to others
  • Niche space can be
    divided:
  • Spatially: where the
    organism physically is
  • Temporally: when the
    organism uses the habitat
  • Behaviorally: what the
    organism consumes (diet,
    resources, light, nutrients)

slide 27

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Competitive Exclusion

A
  • Species distributions can be restricted by
    physiological tolerance and competition
  • Zonation results from exclusion by a
    dominant species

slide 28

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Niche Partitioning – Competitive Exclusion

A
  • Elevation creates different
    ecological niches
    characterized by
    temperature, vegetation
    type, and food resources
  • Example: Different species
    of chipmunks occupy
    different altitudinal zones
    because of a combination
    of thermal tolerance and
    competitive exclusion

slide 29

16
Q

Character Displacement

A
  • When niche partitioning involves
    phenotypic adaptation
    (morphology, behavior, physiology)
    directional selection leads to
    character displacement

slide 30

17
Q

Niche Partitioning – Character Displacement

A

“Ghost of competition past” when character displacement is presumed to
have occurred in the past to lead to present day niche partitioning

slide 31

18
Q

Habitat Heterogeneity

A
  • Resources are not usually
    homogeneous in an environment
  • Increasing environmental variation
    (heterogeneity) typically results in
    increasing beta diversity as species
    are restricted to subsets of the
    habitat
  • This means more unique species
  • Environmental variation supports
    higher phenotypic (and by extension
    genetic) variation for natural
    selection to act on
  • More habitat = more species!
  • Habitat heterogeneity produces different types of niche space to occupy
    allowing more species with narrow niches to fit
  • Most species will be specialists, few will be generalists because of competitive
    exclusion
  • Sources of habitat heterogeneity:
  • Disturbance (e.g., treefall)
  • Vertical structure (forest)
  • Elevation
  • Land cover
  • Patterns of nutrients and microclimate
  • Variation in food resources
  • Seasons
  • Habitat
    heterogeneity
    facilitates niche
    partitioning
  • Species niches
    become more
    narrow
  • Species become
    more specialized
  • More specialized
    species are more
    likely to have
    restricted ranges
    (endemic)

slide 32-34

19
Q

Eco-Evolutionary Relationships

A

Evolutionary ecology
focuses on identifying
phenotypes (traits) that are
ecologically important and
understanding how and
why those traits vary in
different environments

slide 35

20
Q

Environmental Gradients: Clines

A
  • Clines are measurable, gradual changes in a
    phenotype (trait) associated with a continuously
    varying environment
  • Environmental variation creates variation in
    natural selection across a species distribution
  • Gene flow along the environmental gradient
    maintains continuous phenotypic variation
  • Example: Along an elevational gradient
    precipitation and temperature decrease with
    altitude. This produces a continuous variation of
    phenotypes correlated with altitude in
    Arabadopsis thaliana.

slide 36

21
Q

Environmental Gradients: Ecotypes

A
  • Clinal variation may not transition smoothly from one habitat to an adjacent
    habitat if the environment abruptly changes
  • Ecotypes are populations adapted to
    unique local conditions with differences
    maintained by natural selection

slide 37

22
Q

Phenotypic and Environmental Variation

A
  • Phenotypes (traits) are influenced
    by the environment
  • Because the environment is
    variable in space and time,
    phenotypes are variable
  • Phenotypic plasticity can influence
    trait variation within a generation
    – the same genotype produces
    different phenotypes depending
    on the environment
  • Adaptation can influence trait
    variation across generations
    through natural selection

slide 38

23
Q

Adaptation: Trait-Environment Relationships

A
  • Adaptations are tightly linked to the ecological
    niche
  • Adaptations increase fitness of an individual under
    a given set of environmental conditions
  • Environment imposes constraints on processes
    related to fitness: survival, growth, reproduction
  • How adaptations enable an organism to thrive in
    one environment and not in another is key to
    understanding the distribution and abundance of
    species.
  • Adaptations arise because of the interaction of
    individuals with their environment leading to
    differential survival and reproduction (natural
    selection)
  • Environment: selective landscape
  • Trait: selective target
  • Environmental change: selective agent

slide 39

24
Adaptation: Trait-Environment Relationships
* MANY types of adaptations that correlate with niche * Across the tree of life all organisms must first be able to tolerate the abiotic environment * Physiology related to abiotic conditions (thermal tolerance and desiccation tolerance) are strongly tied to distribution * Diet specialization and crypsis are other common environmentally correlated traits in animals slide 40
25
Plant Adaptations: Temp. & Precipitation
* Leaf area and shape relate to heat dissipation * In habitats with abundant water, larger leaves are more effective at cooling via evapotranspiration * In habitats with little water, smaller leaves are more effective at cooling via convection * Leaf characteristics reduce light absorption and water loss: thick cell walls, hairs, waxy coating * Water availability influences roots vs leaves investment * More water = more leaves, less water = more roots * Cold is a problem too! Anti-freeze compounds protect plants (at a cost to the plant) slide 41
26
Animal Adaptations: Temp. & Precipitation
* Behavioral: * Migration * Burrowing * Diapause (arrested development in insects) * Nocturnal activity * Movement between sun / shade / water * Physiological: * Water extraction from food, concentrated wastes * Shivering, panting, sweating * Dormancy (estivation, hibernation) & torpor * Heat storage / night dissipation * Supercooling protection from freezing * Morphological: * Fur, feathers, fat * Coloration * Vascular modifications slide 42
27
Darwin’s Finches
slide 43
28
Key Points to understand
* What factors shape where organisms are where they are? * What is an endemic species? * What is an ecological niche? How does the realized niche differ from the fundamental niche? * What does modelling niche space tell us (what is it used for)? * How do disturbance and species interactions modify niche space? * How does distribution and niche space relate to adaptive (natural selection) and nonadaptive (genetic drift) evolution? * What is the relationship between habitat variation and species diversity? * What key adaptations and plants and animals are closely tied to niche space? * How does the ecology and evolution of Darwin’s Finches illustrate each of the concepts above? slide 44