Lecture 18: Emotions

Question 1

how are emotions different from other things (ie. facts)?

Answer 1

emotions have an evaluative component to them (some emotions I want more or less of)
- different from facts like 2+2=4

Question 2

Emotions are like ___ of if something is going good or bad for us and if we should do something more or less of

Answer 2

Emotions are like indicators of if something is going good or bad for us and if we should do something more or less of

Question 3

explain what multidimensional scaling is (US cities and emotions)

Answer 3

Distances between things → the map that is made shows how things are positioned and how they vary

Example: given four cities (baltimore, NYC, san francisco, seattle)
Position these cities such that all of these interdistance are the same → you are forced to create a map of the US

personality traits: How similar these emotions are to one another (give them a numerical value) to create a map of our emotions
Ie. being enthusiastic is positioned far from quiet bc they are quite different types of emotions
The map created keeps the inner distances between all of the emotions

Question 4

what are the x-axis and y-axis of the emotions multi-dimensional graph?

Answer 4

X-axis: varying in valence (how positive or negative something is)
Y-axis: varying in arousal (how charged up are you; heart rate)
The emotions are almost distanced into a circle

Question 5

valence definition

Answer 5

how positive or negative the emotion is

Question 6

arousal definition

Answer 6

how charged up does the emotion make you (ie. heart rate)

aka how active or passive the emotion is

Question 7

what is the 3rd dimension emotions can differ on?

Answer 7

approach vs avoid

Question 8

what are the 2 dimensions emotions differ on?

Answer 8

valence
arousal

Question 9

Is it possible for an emotion to be on the maximum ends of both spectrums? (extremely positive + extremely high arousal)

Answer 9

no not rly

Question 10

give an example of two emotions that are different in terms of approach vs avoid dimension

Answer 10

terrified and angry: both negative and high arousal
but there are other dimensions besides just valence and arousal that separate emotions from one another
Both emotions that make you react in situations

Terrified: seeing a tiger → terror makes you want to run away from the tiger; angry: seeing a truck taking up 4 parking lots → anger makes you want to approach the person and curse at them or punch them

Question 11

what is a property of emotions and an example of this property

Answer 11

automaticity
Ie. fear when standing on a fiberglass surface → you are going to feel fear even though you know it is not justified and you know it is very safe

language and sight also have automaticity

Question 12

are emotions universal? explain

Answer 12

Universality → the idea that universal feelings should correspond to universal faces (but maybe we learn how to show emotions based on social norm)

evidence for yes emotions are universal:
blind musician smiles when he’s making music; (shows that we haven’t “learned” how to smile from others and smiling is natural and “universal”)

evidence for no emotions are not universal:
Olympic medalist crying because he’s happy and Olympic skier who smiled when she lost because of shame and embarrassment → disproves the idea of universality

A: There are aspects of both, there must be some instinct that makes us smile when you are happy but also it is NOT a one to one thing like if you smile you are 100% happy → it is more complicated than that (ie. smiling when you are embarrassed)

Question 13

give an example of an emotions researcher and the book they wrote

Answer 13

Charles Darwin: Expression of the emotions in man and animals
- “The young and the old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements” (1897) –> supported the idea that emotions are universal

Question 14

explain the Harlow and the monkey experiment

Answer 14

Two robot monkey parents: one of the avatar parent gives the monkey food and nutrition but made out of cold wire/metal; but the other avatar parent has a heater and seems to give more comfort to the monkey kids
→ which robot parent will they like more?

Results shown in the video: the money babies spend 17-18 more hours with the comfort parent and 1-2 hours with the cold wire nursing parent

The variable of contact comfort → it completely overwhelms all other variables including nursing (giving them food and water)

What does it mean for the baby to love its mother? If you frightened a baby, it would run to its mother to get a sense of security and comfort from the mother → it runs to its comfort mother (NOT the nursing mother)
After in the presence of its comfort mother, the monkey baby actually tries to start yelling back and “threatening” the scary robot instead

Question 15

what is contact comfort?

Answer 15

the physical and emotional comfort derived from touch, especially between a caregiver and an infant.

This concept was famously studied by psychologist Harry Harlow in the 1950s through his experiments with rhesus monkeys.

Question 16

emotions are for the 4Fs…

Answer 16

fighting
fleeing
feeding
mating

Question 17

emotions vs rationality iclicker question

Answer 17

if we were less emotional, would our decision-making be better or worse?
→ when asked this question, the answers were very split (the most controversial iclicker question for Intro to Psych class)

Question 18

describe the star trek characters example

Answer 18

There are people in the movie that are depicted as being very emotionless → also gives the connotation that they will be the most rational in high emotional situations

Question 19

describe patient SP, their condition and the experiments and results from them

Answer 19

bilateral amygdala damage (cause hardening of brain tissue and often times need to remove those brain tissue → had to get both of her amygdalas removed)

Patient SP volunteered to participate in a fear research study
Participants will look at a screen flashing different shapes/colors, but when they see a blue square on the screen, they will get a small shock after they see the blue square

Researchers measure the participants’ galvanic skin response (roughly measures how much do you sweat; ie. you sweat more in a fearful event)

For most people, there will be a little spike in the galvanic skin response whenever they see the blue square
However, for patient SP, she does not get the literal physical response of the skin and sweating when she sees the blue square

→ when interviewed, patient SP says that she never thought her emotions and reactions were different from others, but she says she does not sweat and she knew it was going to happen and simply accepted that

Question 20

amygdala

Answer 20

part of the brain that processes fear

Question 21

galvanic skin response

Answer 21

roughly measures how much you sweat (assumption that you sweat more in a fearful event)

Question 22

what are the effects of people with amygdala damage? (patient SP example)

Answer 22

1. causes someone to be less able to recognize fear in others and themselves
   - Shown faces showing emotions such as fear, happy, sad… → patients like Patient SP have a hard time recognizing when OTHER people are scared as well

some people may think that having no fear is a benefit (less emotions –> more rational)
2. However, there are cons to this: patient SP has a story about wandering into dangerous situations…she got robbed because someone was following her and did not pick up on the cues that normal people would → didn’t give the robber any attention because it did not make her nervous

Question 23

describe the iowa gambling task and its results/significance

Answer 23

Drawing from 2 decks of cards: one deck gives you really good number of points vs the other deck
After enough draws, we would figure out which deck is the overall good deck and just stick to the good deck from then on

Frontal patients (ie. patients such as Phineas Gage) participated in the iowa gambling task
- Frontal patients are not emotionally aligned
- Can tell you which deck is bad statistically, BUT do NOT avoid the bad deck (they do not get repelled by the bad deck; they are not bothered by the bad deck)

Question 24

somatic marker hypothesis

Answer 24

a theory of how emotions relate to actions beyond just emotions being as indicators of how things are going for you (aka emotions are not just reactive responses to immediate stimuli but are critical tools for narrowing the vast array of potential decisions we face in life)

emotions have the advantage of constraining the decision-making space (so many possible actions in life, and emotions narrow the space of actions to do)

Question 25

who proposed the somatic marker hypothesis?

Answer 25

Antonio Damasio in the 1990s to explain how emotions influence decision making

Question 26

antonio damasio thinking

Answer 26

somatic marker hypothesis There are so many different emotions and decisions we can do in our moment of time → emotions give us a way to narrow the space of actions that we should do by choosing the decisions that will make us feel better “Personal and social matters are frequently linked to punishment and reward and thus to pain, pleasure, and the regulation of homeostatic states, including emotion and feeling (emotions have) the advantage of constraining the decisions-making space”

Question 27

explain the Capgras's delusion and what causes it and how it is related to the somatic marker hypothesis

Answer 27

causes you to believe that many of your friends and families have been replaced by strangers/imposters (ie. aliens that abducted them, actors) Arises from brain damage from some type (but what type of brain damage is unknown) The person with Capgras’s delusion lost the somatic marker associated with that person (partner, parents, family): Look at your close ones and don’t get the same close feelings or comfort you normally feel and instead of blaming yourself, you blame the other person and come to think of them as an imposter

Question 28

give an example of the Capgras's delusion

Answer 28

Example: David and car accident Called a delusion because it doesn’t add up for the person experiencing the delusion themselves Doesn’t think she is her mom but also doesn’t bother to actually go look for their actual mom The person with Capgras’s delusion lost the somatic marker associated with that person (partner, parents, family) Look at your close ones and don’t get the same close feelings or comfort you normally feel and instead of blaming yourself, you blame the other person and come to think of them as an imposter

Question 29

what are 3 theories of emotions

Answer 29

James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard Theory Two-Factor Theory

Question 30

James-Lange theory

Answer 30

states that a stimulus triggers activity in the body which in turn produces an emotional experience in the mind (emotional experiences are the consequences and not the cause of our body's reactions to events in the world)

Question 31

Cannon-Bard Theory

Answer 31

states that stimulus triggers activity in the body and emotional experience in the mind

Question 32

Two-factor Theory

Answer 32

states that a stimulus triggers a general state of arousal in the body which in the mind then interprets as a specific emotion

Question 33

what do all of the 3 theories of emotions have in common?

Answer 33

What these theories have in common is your body makes you feel a certain way so if you are feeling this way, you interpret certain events physiological states → interpretation of events (opposite of your intuition of interpretation of events --> physiological state)

Question 34

physiological state definition

Answer 34

how your body reacts to something

Question 35

explain misattribution of arousal and the study done on it

Answer 35

Some Evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety Study of sexual attraction: an attractive female researcher approaches men either on a scary bridge (heart is beating fast) or a normal control bridge Experimenter gives the men a card (aka number) to contact her if you have any questions about the study The researchers do this experiment either on a scary bridge or a control bridge → do more people who were approached actually call the woman to set up a date or not? results: 50% of the men approached on the scary bridge called the interviewer compared to the ~12% of the men approached on the "control" not scary bridge called the interviewer afterwards Why do more people call her when they are approached on the scary bridge vs the control bridge On a scare bridge, people’s heart is beating faster due to the scarier bridge, BUT people attribute it to possible sexual attraction to the woman itself → misattribution of arousal Other similar experiments done with caffeine, adrenaline

Question 36

according to the textbook, can all emotional expreinces that humans have be described by their unique location on the emotional 2D map?

Answer 36

YES ALL

Question 37

emotion definition (textbook)

Answer 37

a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity

Question 38

what were the 2 early theories of emotion?

Answer 38

1. James-Lange theory 2. Cannon-Bard theory

Question 39

describe the James-Lange theory (textbook)

Answer 39

a stimulus triggers activity in the body which in turn produces an emotional experience in the mind According to this theory, our emotional experiences are the consequence and NOT the cause of our body’s reaction to events in the world James argued that different emotional experiences are simply the perception of different patterns of bodily responses and without ie. the heart pounding and muscle tensing, we would have no experience of emotion at all

Question 40

name 4 criticisms (and an example to each) against James-Lange Theory

Answer 40

1. Emotional experiences sometimes happen more rapidly than bodily responses do - you feel embarrassed before you start blushing 2. people are not always aware of their bodily responses - most people can't tell when their hearts start beating faster 3. all sorts of unemotional events can cause the body to respond - hot room increases heart rate, but people don't feel afraid when they're in a hot room 4. there are much less unique patterns of bodily activity than there are unique emotional experiences - several different emotional experiences must be associated with the same pattern of bodily activity → so how can people decide which of the several emotions they are experiencing?

Question 41

describe the Cannon-Bard theory (textbook)

Answer 41

a stimulus SIMULTANEOUSLY triggers activity in the body and emotional experience in the mind

Question 42

What is the modern theory of emotion?

Answer 42

two-factor theory of emotion

Question 43

describe the two-factor theory of emotion and who developed it

Answer 43

developed by Scachter and Singer (took bits and pieces of the James-Lange theory and Cannon-Bard theory)

Question 44

describe the two-factor theory of emotion (textbook)

Answer 44

a stimulus triggers a general state of arousal in the body, which the mind then interprets as a specific emotion → this theory suggests that people have just one bodily reaction to all emotional stimuli but they interpret that reaction differently on different occasions and that is what gives rise to the experience of different emotions

Question 45

explain how the 3 theories of emotions each differently explain the bear and fear example

Answer 45

1. James-Lange theory: see the bear --> heart rate increases and leg muscles contract --> experience fear (nothing more or less than your perception of your body's response) aka bear --> SPECIFIC physiological state --> experience of fear 2. Cannon-Bard theory: see the bear --> heart rate increases AND makes you feel afraid (both things happen independently and simultaneously) aka bear --> specific physiological state AND experience of fear 3. two-factor theory: see a bear --> heart rate increases and muscles tense --> mind notices all this activity and looks for an explanation --> since you see a bear, the mind concludes that "I'm afraid" (having notices both a thumping heart and bear in the same room, your mind comes to the LOGICAL conclusion hat you must be afraid) aka bear --> general physiological arousal --> experience of fear

Question 46

How has the two-factor theory fared and in which ways did it do well in and not do well in?

Answer 46

Fared quite well in the key claim that people do make inferences about the causes of their physiological arousal and those inferences determine their emotional experience However, the theory’s claim that different emotional experiences are merely different interpretations of a single bodily state called “arousal” has been rebuked --> did well in predicting that yes people do make inferences about the causes of their body's reactions and those inferences determine what emotion you feel, BUT it is not true that there is only one singular body response you have to all and any stimulus (basically your body does react to different stimuli differently but not every emotion have its own individual/specific body response)

Question 47

give evidence to how people make inferences about the causes of their physiological arousal and those inferences determine their emotional experience

Answer 47

Research has shown that when people are aroused in other ways (ie. riding an exercise bike in the lab) they subsequently find attractive/annoying/funny people more attractive/annoying/funny (as if they were interpreting their exercise-induced arousal as attraction, annoyance, or amusement) the bridge and female interviewer and call backs example in lecture as well

Question 48

give evidence to how the two-factor claim that different emotional experiences are merely different interpretations of a single bodily state called “arousal” has been rebuked

Answer 48

Researchers measure people’s physiological reactions as they experience different emotions and found that… Anger, fear, and sadness increase heart rate more than disgust does Fear and disgust produce higher galvanic skin response (aka sweating) than sadness or anger do Ander produces a larger increase in finger temp than fear does → as shown from research, a single bodily response does NOT underlie ALL emotions

Question 49

describe the monkey Aurora study (textbook)

Answer 49

In the late 1930s, two researchers performed brain surgery on a monkey named Aurora but then after the surgery, the monkey was acting strangely: would eat anything and have sex with anyone, absolutely fearless and remained perfectly calm when handled by researchers or confronted by snakes → what happened? A: During the surgery, the researchers accidentally damaged Aurora’s amygdala

Question 50

what is the relationship for people with amygdala damage with fear? (seeing vs experiencing)

Answer 50

People with amygdala damage do not feel fear when they SEE a threat, but they do feel fear when they EXPERIENCE a threat (ie. they suddenly find that they can’t breathe)

Question 51

Amygdala textbook definition

Answer 51

Amygdala: the part of the brain that plays a special role in producing emotions, especially fear

Question 52

appraisal

Answer 52

Appraisal: an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspect of a stimulus - Appraisal directly influences the type and intensity of emotion experienced - Aka how you interpret/think of the event (stimulus) → can make it positive or negative --> emotions are triggered by one's INTERPRETATION or evaluation of a situation, not just by the situation itself

Question 53

who discovered the fast and slow pathways in our brain?

Answer 53

Joseph LeDoux: mapped the route than information about a stimulus takes as it moves through the brain → discovered that information is transmitted SIMULTANEOUSLY along 2 distinct routes: fast pathway and slow pathway

Question 54

fast pathway

Answer 54

stimulus --> thalamus --> amygdala quick and rudimentary, designed to ensure a rapid response to potential threats

Question 55

slow pathway

Answer 55

stimulus --> thalamus --> cortex --> amygdala slower and more deliberate, involves higher-level cognitive processes

Question 56

describe how the fast and slow pathways work with the bear analogy

Answer 56

see a bear and the info goes from your eye to thalamus which then sends the information to BOTH the cortex (which will eventually send info to amygdala) and directly amygdala LeDoux showed that when you see a bear, the info goes from your eye → thalamus → cortex, which then uses all the info at its disposal to conduct an investigation of the stimulus to determine its identity and answer the question “what is that thing?”; but at the same time, the thalamus has sent the info directly to your amygdala, which answers a simpler question of “is this a threat?” If the amygdala's answer to that question is a “yes,” then it initiates the process that produce the bodily reactions that (when the cortex is done investigating) you will call fear

Question 57

what two brain parts work together to produce our emotional reactions and experiences

Answer 57

cortex amygdala --> they have an inverse relationship with each other

Question 58

describe how the cortex downregulates the amygdala and the research behind it

Answer 58

A: the amygdala receives info directly from thalamus (fast) but also from cortex (slow) → after the cortex has finished its investigation of the stimulus and determines that the perceived threat is not real or immediately, its connection to the amygdala allows it to downregulate the amygdala (aka send a signal to the amygdala telling it to reduce its activity); the cortex often says “hey amygdala, chill out!” --> explains why we might feel scared before we we know what something is Studies show that when individuals are instructed to suppress emotions (e.g., fear, anger, sadness), cortical activity increases, signaling the amygdala to decrease its activity. Conversely, when people actively engage in feeling these emotions, the amygdala’s activity increases while cortical activity decreases.

Question 59

emotion regulation definition (textbook) and the 2 types

Answer 59

the strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience behavioral (avoiding situations) and cognitive (recruiting memories that trigger the desired emotions)

Question 60

suppression of emotions definition

Answer 60

inhibiting the outward signs of an emotion

Question 61

affect labeling of emotions definition

Answer 61

putting one's feelings into words

Question 62

reappraisal

Answer 62

changing one’s emotional experience by changing the way one THINKS about the emotion-eliciting stimulus

Question 63

Research suggests that one of the best strategies for emotion regulation is ___

Answer 63

reappraisal

Question 64

give an example of research on reappraisal and the relationship between reappraisal and cortex/amygdala activity

Answer 64

Ie. participants’ brains were scanned as they saw photos that induced negative emotions like a woman crying during a funeral, but then some participants were asked to reappraise the picture by imagining that the woman was at a wedding instead of a funeral → results showed that when participants initially saw the photo, their amygdalae were activated, but after they appraised the photo, their cortices were activated and then their amygdalae were deactivated → Participants were able to downregulate the activity of their own amygdalae simply by thinking about the photo in a different way

Question 65

when someone tries to SUPPRESS an emotion, how does cortex activity and amygdala activity change?

Answer 65

Cortical activity increases --> signaling the amygdala to decrease its activity.

Question 66

when someone tries to actively FEEL/THINK of an emotion, how does cortex activity and amygdala activity change?

Answer 66

Conversely, when people actively engage in feeling these emotions, the amygdala’s activity increases while cortical activity decreases.

Question 67

reappraisal is a ___

Answer 67

skill

Question 68

what is a pro and con for people who are good at reappraisal?

Answer 68

People who are really good at reappraisal tend to be both mentally and physically healthier and to have better relationships BUT they can be less compassionate towards those who are suffering

Question 69

emotion expression textbook definition

Answer 69

an obversable sign of an emotional state

Question 70

what are examples of emotion expression?

Answer 70

the way we talk: intonation, inflection, volume, duration facial expressions (microexpressions)

Question 71

can people infer emotional states from only vocal cues?

Answer 71

YES research shows that listeners can infer emotional states from vocal cues alone with better-than-chance accuracy

Question 72

what did Charles Darwin suggest in his book: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals?

Answer 72

he speculated about the evolutionary significance of emotional expression and noticed that human and nonhuman animals share certain posture and facial expression Suggested that facial expressions were meant to communicate info about internal states

Question 73

universality hypothesis (textbook)

Answer 73

Darwin’s hypothesis that suggests that emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone ie. Darwin believed that every human being naturally expresses happiness with a smile → as a result, every human being naturally understands that a smile signifies happiness

Question 74

what is evidence supporting the universality hypothesis?

Answer 74

Ie. blind people smile when they are happy; 2-day-old infants make a disgust face when bitter chemicals are put in their mouths ie. People are good at identifying the emotional expressions of members of cultures they have never seen before

Question 75

Members of different cultures seem to express their emotions in the same way despite not speaking the same language → why is that? (symbols vs signs)

Answer 75

words are symbols and facial expressions are signs (symbols are arbitrary destinations that have no causal relationships with the things they symbolize, but signs are CAUSED by the things they signify)

Question 76

symbols vs signs definition

Answer 76

symbols: arbitrary destinations that have no causal relationship with the things they symbolize signs: DO have a causal relationship with the things they symbolize --> signs are CAUSED by the things they signify

Question 77

However, signs can have different meanings → how do we tell them apart?

Answer 77

A: context: same way we can infer the meaning of a multi-meaning word with the given context, we can do the same with facial expressions

Question 78

facial feedback hypothesis and an example of it

Answer 78

emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify Ie. people feel happier when they are asked to make the sound of a long e or to hold a pencil in their teeth (both of which cause the contraction of the zygomatic major) than when they are asked to make the sound of a long u Ie. people feel more assertive when instructed to make a fist

Question 79

what is the reasoning/logic behind the facial feedback hypothesis?

Answer 79

→ things like this happen because facial expressions and emotional states become strongly associated with each other over time and eventually each can bring about the other

Question 80

Is there evidence to suggest that people do use their own emotions to identify the emotions of others? what is the relation to amygdalas

Answer 80

YES! People find it difficult to identify other people’s emotions when they are unable to make facial expressions of their own (ie. Botox) or unable to experience emotions of their own (ie. amygdala damage) Some people with amygdala damage don’t feel fear and anger → as a result they also are usually bad at recognizing the expressions of those emotions in other people

Question 81

display rule

Answer 81

a norm for the appropriate expression of emotion

Question 82

name the 4 techniques needed to obey a display rule

Answer 82

1. intensification 2. deintensification 3. masking 4. neutralizing

Question 83

intensification definition

Answer 83

exaggerating the expression of one's emotion (ie. when someone pretends to be pleased by an unwanted gift: “wow a tie! That’s exactly what I wanted!”)

Question 84

deintensification definition

Answer 84

muting the expression of one's emotion (ie. when the loser tries to look a bit disappointed instead of totally devastated: “No I’m fine with the silver medal, it matches my belt”

Question 85

masking definition

Answer 85

expressing one emotion while feeling another

Question 86

neutralizing

Answer 86

showing no expression of the emotion one is feeling

Question 87

describe the study with american and japanese students watching an unpleasant video and its connection to display rule and culture

Answer 87

→ although people in different cultures use all of the same techniques, they use them in the service of different display rules Ie. in a study with american and japanese college students, both groups watched an unpleasant video of car accidents and amputations: when the students didn’t know that the experimenters were observing them, but groups of students showed similar facial expressions of disgust BUT when the students knew they were being observed, japanese students masked their disgust with pleasant expressions while american students did not --> This is because in many eastern cultures, it is considered rude to display negative emotions in the presence of a respected person → members of these cultures tend to mask or neutralize their expressions

Question 88

People are generally ___ at recognizing the facial expressions of members of their own cultures

Answer 88

People are generally better at recognizing the facial expressions of members of their own cultures

Question 89

microexpressions definition

Answer 89

Microexpressions: facial expressions that last just 1/5 to 1/25 of a second that show one’s true emotional state despite one trying to hide them

Question 90

name 4 features that distinguish between sincere and insincere facial expressions that are easier to observe

Answer 90

1. morphology 2. symmetry 3. duration 4. temporal patterning

Question 91

morphology definition

Answer 91

Morphology: sincere expressions involve the so-called reliable muscles (those that people cannot easily control) People can easily control the zygomatic major muscles that raise the corners of their mouths, but not the orbicularis oculi muscles that crinkle the corners of their eyes → easier to distinguish between real smile vs a fake/forced smile by the eyes

Question 92

symmetry definition

Answer 92

Symmetry: sincere expressions tend to be a bit more symmetrical than insincere expressions A slightly lopsided smile suggests insincerity

Question 93

duration definition

Answer 93

sincere expressions tend to last between 1/2 second to 5 seconds Expressions of much longer duration tend to be insincere

Question 94

temporal patterning definition

Answer 94

Temporal patterning: sincere expressions appear and disappear smoothly over the course of a few seconds; insincere expressions tend to have abrupt onsets and offsets

Question 95

People are fairly bad at distinguishing between someone lying or someone telling the truth and under most circumstances they don’t perform much better than chance → why is that? (2 reasons)

Answer 95

1. people have a strong bias toward believing that others are expressing sincere emotions/telling the truth → explains why people tend to mistake liars for truth-tellers more often than they mistake truth-tellers for liars 2. people don’t know what to look for when they try to detect insincerity and dishonesty

Question 96

according to the textbook, are machines or humans better at detecting lies?

Answer 96

machines (but that's not saying much)

Question 97

what is the most widely used lie detection machine?

Answer 97

polygraph

Question 98

polygraph

Answer 98

measures a variety of physiological responses that are associated with stress which people often feel when they are afraid of being caught in a lie Polygraph can detect lies at a better-than-chance but its error rate is way too high to be actually reliable and people can also be trained to fool a polygraph

Question 99

motivation textbook definition

Answer 99

Motivation: the psychological cause of an action

Question 100

emotions motivate people in which 2 ways? (aka the 2 functions of emotions)

Answer 100

1. Emotions provide people with info about the world (emotions are info) 2. Emotions are the OBJECTIVES toward which people strive towards (emotions are goals)

Question 101

explain the function emotions are info

Answer 101

since events in the world can influence our emotions, our emotions can provide info about events in the world and often times than not, the information is useful and helps us make decisions Ie. when a neurologist was asked to see a patient who had an unusual form of brain damage, he asked the patient to choose between 2 dates for an appointment, the patient couldn’t decide for half an hour since they enumerated reasons for and against both possible dates, completely unable to decide in favor of one option or the other since the patient felt nothing when he thought about each option, he couldn’t decide which was best

Question 102

explain the function emotions are goals

Answer 102

hedonic principle - we want to experience good emotions and avoid bad emotions --> emotions are a motivating factor when we make decisions

Question 103

hedonic principle textbook definition

Answer 103

Hedonic principle: the claim that people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain Aristotle argued that the hedonic principle could explain everything there was to know about human motivation: “it is the sake of this that we all do all that we do” → suggesting that pleasure isn't just good, it is what the word “good” actually means According to the hedonic principle, our emotional experience can be thought of as a gauge that ranges from bad to good and our primary (maybe even sole) motivation is to keep the needle on the gauge as close to GOOD as possible