Lecture 10 - Qualitative Research (cont.)

Question 1

Sampling

Answer 1

• The objective of sampling in qualitative research is not concerned with ensuring that the findings can be statistically generalised to the whole population, rather sampling in qualitative research is purposive
• The aim is to describe the phenomenon, rather than its distribution
• While qualitative samples do not attempt to be statistically representative, this does not mean that sampling in qualitative research proceeds without any guidance (doesn’t need to be statistically represented)
• Convenience sampling is the least desirable form of sampling within qualitative research and should be avoided if all possible

Question 2

Common forms of sampling

Answer 2

• Intensity sampling
– Rich information from a few select cases that manifest the phenomenon intensely
• Deviant case sampling
– Highly unusual manifestation of the phenomenon
• Purposive sampling
– Illustrate characteristics of particular, relevant subgroups
– Chosen purposively as they have a “story to tell”
– Quota sampling
• We decide while designing the study how many people with which characteristics to include as participants
• Snowball or chain sampling (when don’t have access to a large number of people)
– Facilitate identification of hard-to-find cases
• Maximum variation sampling
– Document diverse variations and help identify common patterns that cut across variations
• Convenience sampling (least favourable)
– Information collected from a sample of convenience
• Criterion sampling
– Investigate in depth a particular “type” of case

Question 3

Sample Size

Answer 3

• Sample size
– Does size matter here?
• There are general concerns regarding how many cases constitute a large enough sample for qualitative research
– Some believe sample size in qualitative is nonsensical (going to get different viewpoint when talk to different people)
– Others believe that there are standards that should be met

Question 4

Sample Size - When is it large enough?

Answer 4

• When the researcher is satisfied that the data are rich enough and cover dimensions they are interested in, then the sample size is large enough
– Grounded Theory with its explicit focus on theory development vs Qualitative Description with its superficial focus on an issue
• Also consider the depth and richness of responses
– Long, repeat interviews with rich and meaningful responses (n = 6-10)
– Structured interviews with thin responses (n = 45-60)
• The researcher has to decide how much detail, and how much breadth, is required in the research, balance this with the resources of time and money available, and make a judgement about when additional sampling would be redundant
• Saturation
– No new information is being gathered
– Adequate and detailed data are collected to support the research findings
– Increasing debate about its relevance

Question 5

Data analysis

Answer 5

• A holistic approach
– A reductionist approach in quantitative research paradigm
• Large amounts of data in transcripts and notes
– Systematic and rigorous preparation of this data is time consuming and can be very labour intensive
• Data collection and analysis takes side by side
• Generation of themes, categories, codes and explanations
• Thematic and content analysis
– Means different things to different people
– Used interchangeably – Boundaries are blurred
• Using of computer data management systems
– Helps to manage large volumes of narrative data
• Nudist
• N-vivo

Question 6

Thematic Analysis

Answer 6

• Key steps in thematic analysis
– Organise the data
• Familiarisation of the data
– Generate categories or themes • Patterns or themes
– Code the data
• Apply categories to the data
• Select passages that are useful examples
– Test emergent understandings • What does the data mean?
– Search of alternative explanations • Is there some other explanation?
– Writing the report
• Pulling the findings together

Question 7

Content Analysis

Answer 7

• Systematic coding and categorisation approach
• Looking for trends and patterns of words used, their frequency, their relationships, structures and communications
– May be quantified (e.g. 7/10 people liked the coffee because of its taste)
• Who says what, to whom, and with what effect
(grounded theory - have no idea what will find, thematic analysis)
(qualitative description - have some idea, content analysis)

Question 8

Rigour in qualitative research

Answer 8

• Bias
– Can be eliminated in quantitative research paradigm
– Qualitative research celebrates individual’s perspectives
• So, there are opportunities for bias
• Trustworthiness
– A trustworthy person is someone who tells the “truth” and does so consistently
– That person is worth believing

Question 9

Trustworthiness

Answer 9

• Demonstration that the evidence for the results reported are sound and when the argument made based on the results is strong
• Credibility
– establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or
believable from the perspective of the participant in the research • Transferability
– degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings
• Dependability
– assumption of replicability or repeatability
• Confirmability
– degree to which the results could be confirmed or corroborated by others

Question 10

Reliability and Validity in Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Answer 10

Qualitative (Quantitative) 
credibility (internal validity) 
transferability (external validity) 
dependability (reliability) 
confirmability (objectivity)

Question 11

Several strategies to improve rigour (know at least 3-4 for exam)
**review rigour and trustworthiness diagram

Answer 11

• Several strategies to improve rigour and trustworthiness
– Purposive sampling
• Clear, logical and reasoned approach to sampling
– Triangulation
• Data triangulation (different groups, times and locations), method triangulation (different ways to collect the same data)
– Audit of data collection
• An adequate trail should be left to enable the auditor to determine if the conclusions, interpretations, and recommendations can be traced to their sources and if they are supported by the inquiry
– Multiple coders
• Using multiple people to check the coding to ensure whether the coding process is consistent
– Respondent validation or member checking
• Process of verifying information with the target group
– External observer
• Independent observer to critique and provide feedback
– Peer debriefing/ review
• Debriefing with someone outside your research
– Using thick descriptions
• Detailed descriptions of data in context and reports them with sufficient detail
– Reflexivity
• Process of examining both oneself as a researcher and the research
relationship
– “Am I in anyway influencing the research and its findings?”

Question 12

Ethics in qualitative research

Answer 12

• Any research nowadays require ethical approval
– Respect for persons requires a commitment to ensuring the autonomy of research participants
– Beneficence requires a commitment to minimizing the risks associated with research
– Justice requires a commitment to ensuring a fair distribution of the risks and benefits resulting from research (need to stop if it is adversely affecting the individual e.g. child abuse)
• This is particularly important in qualitative research
– Whenever we conduct research on people, the well-being of research participants must be our top priority
– In qualitative research, due to close relationship between the researcher and researched, boundaries might be blurred
• Important to seek and obtain informed consent***
– a mechanism for ensuring that people understand what it means to participate in a particular research study so they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way
whether they want to participate