Lecture 10: Exercise Psychology

Question 1

what are 3 theories of motivation

Answer 1

1. Theory of Planned Behavior: intention is proposed to be predicted by attitude (= positive or negative evaluations of behavior), subjective norms (= normative beliefs connected to the behavior) and perceived behavioral control (= individual’s belief in their ability and confidence to perform the target behavior), which are belief-based constructs. Intention then leads to exercise behavior
2. Health Belief Model: performance of a health behavior is influenced by underlying beliefs;
   - perceived health threat = beliefs about the perceived severity (seriousness) of a particular illness, as well as beliefs about one’s own subjective vulnerability
   (susceptibility) to that illness
   - perceived effectiveness of health behavior = reflects beliefs about the perceived benefits versus costs of the health behavior
   - general health motivation = an individual’s general willingness to address a particular health issue
   - cues to action = environmental or situational factors that may prompt the performance of a behavior
3. Social-Cognitive Theory: health behavior is mainly influenced by self-efficacy expectations (= belief about own ability to successfully/independently master the desired action) and outcome expectations (= beliefs about the effectiveness of the planned action with regard to the health goal to be achieved, as well as possible disadvantages that may arise from the behavior) of a person in relation to a certain health behavior
   –> also influenced by impeding/supporting factors and goals

Question 2

what are 2 kinds of attitudes and 2 kinds of subjective norms (TPB)

Answer 2

Attitudes:
1. ** Instrumental behavioral beliefs** = What will the behavior lead to?
- Going to the gym and doing lat pulls will
lower my back pain
2. Experiential behavioral beliefs = What are my experiences with this behavior?
- Last time I went to the gym and did lat pulls is enjoyable

Subjective norms:
1. Injunctive normative beliefs = Do others approve or disapprove of the behavior
- My friends think going to the gym and doing lat pulls is a good thing.
2. Descriptive normative beliefs
- My friends also go to the gym and do lat pulls as exercise.

Question 3

what 2 factors can facilitate or impede perceived behavioral control

Answer 3

• skills and abilities
• access and availability

Question 4

what are the 4 sources of self-efficacy

Answer 4

1. the successful own
   execution of an action
2. substitute experiences (learning vicariously
   through observation of a model)
3. symbolic experiences (verbal information)
4. emotional arousal

Question 5

what do action execution theories address

Answer 5

why individuals fail to translate their health behavior intentions into subsequent action; intention-behavior gap
–> can be considered volitional models as they focus on the realization of intentions after the completion of intention formation and, thus, address action control

Question 6

explain implementation intentions and what are 2 versions of planning

Answer 6

= “if-then” plan that pairs a desired action with a specified scenario (e.g., if situation Y arises, then I will do X)
1. action planning = a task-facilitating strategy that considers how an individual prepares to perform a behavior; targeted actions are linked to situational information or stimuli by specifying when, where, and how a specific action is to be performed
2. coping planning = a distraction-inhibiting strategy that considers how an individual prepares to avoid foreseen barriers and obstacles that may arise when performing a specific behavior and potentially competing behaviors that may derail the behavior; identifying challenging situations that could derail the implementation of the intention and mental representation of ways to overcome them

Question 7

what are 7 recommendations to promote health behavior change

Answer 7

1. Plans should always be formulated as “if-then” links, not in general terms.
2. Plans should refer to individually relevant situational cues that need to be identified first.
3. The formulation of action plans should always be supplemented by coping plans.
4. The formulation of plans should be guided by a trained consultant.
5. Ideally, plans should be created dyadically or collaboratively.
6. Subjects should receive a reminder of their plans (“booster” reminders).
7. For the formulation of plans, especially for persons with low intentions and high resistance to change, additional measures are taken to promote motivation and (volitional) self-efficacy expectations.

Question 8

explain the Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change and its 5 stages

Answer 8

• behavior change occurs through different stages of change (descriptive level) and through the use of different strategies of change (procedural level)
• the context of change is also considered in the model as health behavior change always occurs within the life context of a person, which can enhance or interfere with change
  5 stages:
  1. precontemplation = individual displays no motivation or intention to change their current behavior in the near future; person may lack information and problem awareness regarding their current level of physical inactivity
  –> often an active intervention is needed here to move to the next stage
  2. contemplation = individual may be at least aware of the advantages and disadvantages of the planned behavior change, but they may still be in a state of ambivalence such that the person cannot decide on a concrete plan of action; formed a plan to change their behavior in the near future
  3. preparation = person is highly motivated to do physical activity on a regular basis; an intention to act has already been formed and the decision in favor of the behavior has been made, initial steps have
  already been taken to realize the intention
  –> from stages 2 and 3, a regression to previous stage can take place at any time
  4. action = target behavior is carried out and the problematic behavior is reduced or the health-­ promoting behavior is built up; individual has performed the target behavior regularly but has maintained the behavior for less than 6 months
  –> prone to relapse into physical inactivity
  5. maintenance = if the target behavior has been shown for more than 6 months; efforts must continue to be directed toward preventing a relapse into earlier stages where problematic behavioral patterns are present

Question 9

what are the 5 cognitive-affective processes of the Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change

Answer 9

1. Consciousness raising: Conscious perception of the resulting consequences and awareness of possible change paths from problem behavior
2. Dramatic relief: Creating an emotional connection and personal involvement with the problem behavior and its consequences
3. Environmental reevaluation: Conscious perception of emotional/cognitive consequences of problem or target behavior for the personal environment
4. Self-reevaluation: Conscious perception of emotional and cognitive consequences of the problem or target behavior for oneself
5. Social liberation: Active perception and awareness of environmental conditions that facilitate the change in problem behavior

Question 10

what are the 5 behavioral processes of the Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change

Answer 10

1. Self-liberation, commitment: The conviction that change is possible and the commitment to implement this change
2. Stimulus control: Remove triggers for problem behavior and/or provide incentives for favorable alternative behavior
3. Counterconditioning: Replace unfavorable behaviors by favorable behavior in the sense of a problem solution
4. Helping relationships: Actively asking for and demanding concrete social support, but also the ability to accept help
5. Reinforcement management: Conscious use of rewards (material or immaterial) for steps that lead in the desired direction

Question 11

explain the Health Action Process Approach

Answer 11

• makes a distinction between a motivational phase (= individuals are in a deliberative mindset while forming a goal intention) and a volitional phase (= individuals are in an implementation mindset while pursuing their goal)

Two phases
Motivational phase:
1. outcome expectancies = person’s beliefs that the behavior will lead to outcomes that have utility for the individual and is the result of rational decision-making
2. risk perception = person’s belief in the severity of a health condition that may arise from not performing the target behavior and their vulnerability toward it
3. intention
4. action self-efficacy = optimistic beliefs about personal agency
Volitional phase:
1. coping self-efficacy = an individual’s optimistic beliefs in their ability to be able to overcome obstacles and barriers that may stand in the way of maintaining the desired goal
2. recovery self-efficacy = addresses the experience of failure and recovery from setbacks and refers to an individual’s confidence in their ability to get back on track after setbacks and missteps and effectively resume control of the behavior
3. planning (action and coping)
4. action control =
- self-monitoring (e.g., “I consistently monitor when, where, and how long I exercise”)
- awareness of standards (e.g., “I have always been aware of my exercise training program”)
- self-­ regulatory effort (e.g., “I took care to exercise as much as I intended to”)

Question 12

explain the Motivation-Volition Process Model

Answer 12

Motivational phase:
- perceived behavior control (self-efficacy beliefs) and the outcome expectations
(expected advantages and disadvantages) of regular physical activity influence whether an intention is formed and how strong this intention is
- self-concordance = the extent to which an individual’s intention or goal corresponds to their interests/values
- If behavioral intentions are strong and there is a high degree of self-concordance with the goal intention, volitional strategies and steering mechanisms can then be used to translate those intentions into subsequent action

Volitional phase:
- (coping/action) planning, barrier management and situational cues influence action initiation, which influences exercise behavior

Question 13

explain Dual-Process Theories of Physical Activity Behavior and Integrated Models of Health Behavior

Answer 13

Behavior is controlled by two different information processing systems that can be distinguished based on the levels of automaticity or reflectiveness of actions:
- The reflective system uses an explicit decision-making process that requires cognitive resources and is therefore effortful and slow
- The impulsive system uses more automatic processes that are fast and effortless and occur automatically without overly drawing on cognitive resources

Question 14

Give 2 examples of dual-process theories and explain them

Answer 14

1. Affective-Reflective Theory of Physical Inactivity and Exercise:
   - type 1 processes (i.e., those that are fast, automatic, effortless and requiring minimal cognitive resources)
   - type 2 processes (i.e., those that are reflective, slow, effortful, controlled, and dependent on the availability of self-control resources)
2. The Physical Activity Adoption and Maintenance Model:
   Explicit processes;
   - deliberative, effortful, and intentional processes
   - rely on the availability of cognitive resources to control behavior
   - regulating the self allows individuals to resist impulses and immediate gratifications in order to initiate behaviors directed at long-term goals and intentions (= trait self-regulation)
   - executive functions are the mental processes which regulate lower-level processes (perceptions/beliefs), and enable self-regulation through the explicit organization of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in favor of long-term goals
   Implicit processes;
   - automatic processes that represent well-learned, spontaneous, and non-conscious influences which are triggered by environmental or internal cues
   - affects refer to subjective experiences that represent simple, non-explicit, and rapid feelings
   - habits are automatic impulses to perform an action in response to environmental cues and develop when a specific behavior is consistently performed in stable environmental contexts

Question 15

what are 4 common approaches to theory integration

Answer 15

1. additional constructs approach: most basic and is where constructs are added to an existing theory to address shortcomings in prediction of the existing theory
2. core constructs approach: aims to summarize and then condense key constructs from theories with similar conceptualization but different labels
3. expert consensus approach: another approach that can be used to identify commonalities and redundancy across theories
4. utility-based approach: premised on reducing redundancy and increasing complementarity

Question 16

provide and explain 2 examples of integrated models of health and behavior

Answer 16

1. Trans-contextual model;
   - model predicts that the classroom environment fostered by physical education
   teachers determines the type or form of motivation students experience when performing physical activities in their physical education classes and, importantly, their persistence on tasks
   - autonomously motivated individuals are more likely to persist on tasks and experience greater interest and engagement
   - autonomous motivation toward physical activities in the physical education context is suggested to transfer across contexts
2. Integrated Behavior Change Model; specifies three key behavioral
   processes:
   a) a conscious, deliberative route to behavior represented by effects of social cognition constructs (attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control) from the theory of planned behavior on behavior mediated by intentions
   b) a non-conscious, automatic route to behavior represented by direct effects of implicit attitudes and motives, as well as habit
   c) two action phases, a motivational phase in which intention formation is determined by constructs identified in (a), and a volitional phase in which intentions are implemented via planning

Question 17

provide 2 concepts of the self and explain them

Answer 17

1. self-concept = person’s perception of himself or herself, which is shaped by personal experiences and social interaction
   –> relatively stable
2. self-esteem = emotional evaluation of the characteristics identified in the self-concept and is closely tied to self-worth

Question 18

what are 3 kinds of exercise models of the self

Answer 18

• bottom-up models; exercise intervention would lead to improvements in physical self-efficacy, the improvements in physical self-efficacy would then increase physical self-competence and acceptance, leading to positive changes in global self-esteem.
• top-down models; a person with high global self-esteem or physical self-worth may view themselves as skilled and would be less likely to be discouraged by an individual poor performance
• reciprocal models; combine bottom-up and top-down, suggesting that the more stable components of self-concept and self-esteem may have a causal influence on perceptions of the physical self and potentially exercise participation, and that exercise can influence changes in self-esteem or self-concept

Question 19

summarize the effects of exercise on the self

Answer 19

• exercise has a small but significant effect on global self-concept and self-esteem in both youth and adult populations
• moderating variables are changes in fitness, intervention goals (lifestyle vs. skills training), and the intervention environment

Question 20

summarize the relationship between exercise and energy and fatigue

Answer 20

• meta-analyses have found significant positive associations between levels of physical activity and both increased feelings of energy and decreased feelings of fatigue
  –> 40% reduction in feelings of low energy and fatigue when active adults were compared
  with their sedentary peers
• single bouts of exercise (acute exercise) can increase feelings of energy, but it does not necessarily reduce fatigue
• chronic exercise has been shown to be effective in reducing levels of fatigue and increasing levels of energy
  –> intensity might be a key moderator

Question 21

summarize the effects of exercise on fatigue in patient populations

Answer 21

Cancer:
- exercise could
be helpful in reducing feelings of fatigue among patients with cancer both during and after cancer treatment

Fibromyalgia:
- the evidence on the effects of exercise on feelings of fatigue for this population is encouraging, particularly given the high levels of fatigue experienced by these individuals
- there is currently a lack of understanding of how exercise dose (i.e., type, intensity, frequency, duration) might play a role in reducing fatigue

Multiple sclerosis:
- engaging in regular aerobic exercise is beneficial and reduces fatigue with MS patients

Question 22

what are potentional mechanisms moderating the relationship between exercise and fatigue in patient populations

Answer 22

Certain brain structures and/or electrophysiological synchronization of the entire brain might be the origin of energy and fatigue (specifically areas in the brain responsible for regulating motor functions). It is likely that key neurotransmitters (eg. dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, etc.) are responsible for regulating feelings of energy and fatigue.

Mechanisms:
- some evidence that exercise can modify these neurotransmitters and therefore influence the feelings of energy and fatigue
- genetic modifications are hypothesized to be one possible mechanism behind these effects

Question 23

explain the hypotheses, operationalization, results and potential causal mechanisms in the study “Do Exercisers Maximize Their Pleasure by Default?”

Answer 23

Hypotheses:
- prompting participants to maximize pleasure and enjoyment would result in more positive affective valence during and after exercise, greater remembered pleasure following exercise and greater enjoyment of exercise

Operationalization:
- experimental condition; participants were reminded (five times during the 10-min session) to maximize pleasure and enjoyment and that they could change the intensity if they wanted.
- control condition; identical, except no reminders were provided
- affective valence, heart rate, and ratings of perceived exertion were measured every 2 min during exercise
- affective valence, enjoyment, and remembered pleasure were measured after each exercise session

Results:
- Prompting participants to maximize their pleasure and enjoyment resulted in increased pleasure as the exercise session progressed.
- After receiving prompts, participants also reported more positive postexercise affective valence and rated the session as more pleasant and enjoyable.
- These results suggest that participants do not maximize pleasure and enjoyment by default (i.e., in the absence of reminders to do so)

Potential causal mechanisms:
- differences in perceived control and autonomy; it is possible that the prompt condition induced a greater sense of autonomy by reminding participants that they could change their exercise intensity. Increased perceived control and autonomy could have resulted in greater remembered pleasure, enjoyment, and post-exercise pleasure.

Question 24

what are the signs of a heart attack

Answer 24

• chest pain or discomfort
• shortness of breath
• pain or discomfort in jaw, neck, back, arm or shoulder
• feeling nauseous, light-headed or unusually tired (women)

Question 25

what are the signs of a stroke

Answer 25

• numbness or weakness in the face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body
• confusion or trouble speaking or understanding speech
• trouble seeing in one or both eyes
• trouble walking, dizziness or problems with balance
• severe headaches with no known cause

Question 26

what are the signs of metabolic syndrome

Answer 26

• increased blood pressure
• high triglycerides
• large waistline
• low hdl (good) cholesterol
• elevated fasting blooc sugar

Question 27

what is sedentary behavior and what outcomes is it related to

Answer 27

= “sitting time”
–> associated with decreased fitness, lower self-esteem, decreased academic achievement, lower prosocial behavior
–> related to cardiovascular disease

Question 28

explain the relationship between yoga and cardiovascular health

Answer 28

• Yoga versus no treatment or usual care; significant improvements in blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, waist circumference, most blood lipid markers, HbA1C and one other insulin resistance marker
• Yoga versus exercise; improvement in HDL blood levels (“good” cholesterol)
• Effects were most prominent in RCTs with exactly 12 weeks of intervention duration
• Safety seems relatively high (however not every study reports safety data)
• Effects among people with type 2 diabetes; improvements waist/hip ratio, blood lipid markers, fasting blood glucose

Question 29

what are 4 other benefits of exercise

Answer 29

1. Regular exercise → Well-being (+), coping abilities (+), anxiety (-)
2. Enjoyment; continuation of exercise programs, individually tailored physical activity programs
3. Enhancement of self-esteem & self-confidence; satisfaction and feelings of accomplishment
4. Opportunities to socialize; sense of personal commitment

Question 30

what is intention

Answer 30

= a conscious decision to achieve a certain result or to perform a certain behavior. Whether a person ultimately behaves accordingly depends on the strength of this intention.

Question 31

what are barriers to exercising

Answer 31

• according to theory, motivation is the barrier –> intention-physical activity gap is 46%
  –> nearly twice as many people fail to translate their intentions into physical activity than simply have no intention to be active
• Age differences: 60-78yo. –> health-related reasons
• Underestimation of enjoyment (forecasting bias) –> thinking you won’t enjoy it
• Disproportionate weighing on the beginning of the exercise experience –> thinking the start will be very hard

Question 32

what are the main reasons people don’t exercise (according to Downs & Huasenblas)

Answer 32

• Health issues
• Inconvenience
• Lack of motivation and energy
• Lack of social support
• Insufficient time
• Lack of money

Question 33

what are some factors influencing exercise adherence (personal [2], cognitive and personality [2], environmental [2], characteristics of the physical activity [3])

Answer 33

Personal factors:
- Demographic: Income, education, higher occupational status
- Age: large decrease in activity in early adulthood

Cognitive and personality variables:
- Self-efficacy and self-motivation as consistent predictors
- Self-motivation: Reflection of self-regulatory skills (goal setting, self-monitoring, self-reinforcement)

Environmental factors:
- Social: Family, friends, spouse
- Physical: Convenience and proximity, climate & season, perceived lack of time

Characteristics of the physical activity:
- Discomfort, high intensity (walking versus running, autonomy regarding pace), risk of injury
- Group exercises > individual programs
- Leader qualities: interactive, encouraging, energetic, face-to-face feedback, democratic leadership style, promotion of task cohesion

Question 34

what are 4 examples of strategies to enhance exercise adherence

Answer 34

1. “Cues” from the physical environment: Posters, slogans, placing exercise equipment in visible locations
2. “Nudging”: Visual nudges initially affects stair use and can be used in stimulating daily physical activity
3. Contracting: Specific expectations, responsibilities, and contingencies for behavioral change
4. Charting attendance and participation: Performance feedback – even more effective when converted into graphs or charts, keeping diaries, logging behavior on an app