lecture 10 Flashcards
- Review: normal lung anatomy and development, normal lung physiology, lung function tests (spirometry) - Pulmonary complications of cystic fibrosis - pathology of the lungs - microbial colonisation of the lung in CF
What are the pathways air travels through to get to the lung?
Airways are a series of branching tubes.
- upper airways
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- terminal bronchioles
- respiratory bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- alveoli
What is the acinus?
Where the main action of the lung (gas exchange) occurs.
- respiratory bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- alveolar sacs
- alveoli
raspberry shaped
How does the development of the lung occur?
5 stages of lung development.
- embryonic: 0-6 weeks gestation
- lung bud appears day 26-28
- ventral outpouching of the primitive foregut
- endodermal origin
- proximal branching of the airways into surrounding mesoderm - pseudoglandular: 6-16 weeks gestation
- lungs start to form an early pattern that is a little more recognisable to the airway patterns seen in baby/adult
- airways develop (branch) to the level of the terminal bronchioles (pre-acinar bronchi)
- by the time you get to the terminal bronchioles you have 16 divisions/generations of airways that have developed - Canalicular: 16-26 weeks gestation
- acinar region develops
- thinning of the peripheral epithelium
- Type I and II pneumocytes develop - sacular/alveolar: 26-36 weeks gestation
- sacules form into the alveolar ducts and alveoli start to be developed
- marked decrease in interstitial tissue
- sacules become thin walled (as recognised in postnatal lungs)
- sacules and alveoli form further generations of alveoli by septation
- by the time a baby is born there are 100 x 10^6 (on average) alveoli in a baby (1/3 of those present in adults)
- surface area at birth 4m^2 (in adult 10m^2) - postnatal: birth to ? (2 years to adult)
- lungs continue to develop afterbirth but unclear when it finishes. Used to be thought to end at 2 but now at least into teenage years. Good news for young children with lung disease.
What are some of the functions of the lung?
- gas exchange
- defence
- acid-base balance
- metabolic
- heat exchange
- water balance
- phonation
What are the lung defence mechanisms?
Physical (airway)
- upper airway filter
- reflexes (sneeze, cough)
- mucociliary escalator
Cellular (alveolar)
- phagocytes e.g. alveolar macrophages
- immunological
What is the mucociliary escalator?
- airway surface liquid (ASL) has 2 layers
- periciliary layer (quite thin)
- mucus gel layer (thicker)
- mucus produced by secretory cells include Goblet cells
- mucus propelled by cilia
- beat 12-15 times per second
- 1mm per minute
- beat the mucus from the distal ends of the airways upwards through to the back of your throat –> constantly swallowing mucus (around 30ml per day in a normal person)
- impurities in the air get trapped in the mucus and this escalator prevents them from reaching the rest of the body
How does gas exchange occur in the lung?
- in the acinus which is the portion of the lung that includes the alveoli
- o2 in co2 out
- type II cell are what produce the surfactant
- type I where gas exchange occurs - form the walls of the alveoli - very thin layer so that oxygen can easily diffuse across the membrane of the alveolar wall and the capillary (CO2 diffuses in opposite direction
How do we measure lung function?
- volume (litres)
- flow (l/sec) = volume over time
- pressure
What are the different lung volumes and capacities?
- tidal volume: small volume, normal restful breathing, amount of air you’re breathing at any one time
- inspiratory reserve volume: take a deep breath to fill your lungs as much as possible
- expiratory reserve volume: expelling as much air as you can
- total lung capacity: complete amount of air in the lungs
- residual volume: you can never breath all the air out of your lungs, this represents what is left of total capacity when you breathe out as much as possible
What is forced expiration?
- measure with spirometer
- maximal inspiration followed by fast exhalation to residual volume
- forced expiratory volume (FEV1): volume exhaled in first second
- forced vital capacity (FVC): total volume exhaled
What does a normal flow-volume curve look like?
- initally the flow is very fast and as the volume drops off the flow reduces
What happens to the flow/volume curve when you have CF/severe asthma etc?
- fast initial flow
- v. quickly drops off
- someone with obstruction of airways can take a long time to blow out all the air because of narrow tubes –> total amount of air in the lungs is the same but thinner passages make it harder to breathe out
What is the role of pulmonary disease in CF?
- lung disease is associated with a significant amount of morbidity and mortality in CF: 90% of people with CF will die because of a lung disease
- pulmonary exacerbations
- increased cough and sputum production
- increased dyspnoea
- lethargy/poor appetite
- reduced lung function
- can lose weight
- progressive decline in lung function
- respiratory failure
- death/transplantation
How is CFTR associated with lung disease?
- CFTR mutations –> lung disease: exact mechanism unknown
- complex relationship between host defense and airway microbiology that impacts on sputum production and airflow obstruction
- viral infections may play a role in the initiation of these events (also bacterial, probably also fungal)
CFTR expressed on several cell types
- apical plasma membrane of ciliated epithelial cells in airways; regulates ion transport – chloride, bicarbonate
- serous cells of submucosal glands
- alveolar epithelial type II cells
- cells of the immune system
- alveolar macrophages
- neutrophils
What does CFTR do in airway epithelial cells?
Coordinates modulation of ASL (airway surface liquid) by
- Na+ absorption Epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) (in lungs, usually inhibits)
- Cl- secretion
2 functions of CFTR lost in CF:
1. ENaC not inhibited: therefore increased sodium absorption (water follows sodium)
2. Cl- ions not secreted
therefore increased Na+, Cl- and H2O absorption
therefore decreaseed ASL volume