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+ BIOL 370 > Lecture 10-11: Locomotion > Flashcards

Lecture 10-11: Locomotion Flashcards

1
Q

What is the total cost of transport (COT_Tot)?

A

metabolic rate divided by locomotor velocity

  • expressed in joules or calories
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2
Q

What is the net cost of transport (COT_Net)?

A

total metabolic rate minus resting metabolic rate

  • expressed in joules or calories
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3
Q

What factors affect the metabolic costs of locomotion? (3)

A
  • cost typically increases with speed
  • cost decreases with body mass – smaller organisms are better at retaining temperature
  • cost differs by mode of locomotion (due to differences in fluid (air/water) mechanics in different environments) – swimming < flying < running
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4
Q

What is metabolic rate?

A

amount of energy expended per unit time

  • sum of all energy transformation processes
  • rate of ATP turnover
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5
Q

What are the different types of metabolic rates?

A
  • standard or basal metabolic rate
  • maximal metabolic rate
  • hypometabolic rate (metabolically suppressed)
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6
Q

What are the 3 measurements of metabolic rate?

A
  • O2 consumption rate (VO2 or MO2)
  • CO2 production rate (VCO2 or MCO2)
  • heat dissipation (3.71 μW = 1 μg O2/h), 1 W = 1 joule/s, 1 mL O2 = ~20 joules
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7
Q

What is gravity?

A

natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy (including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light) are attracted towards each other

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8
Q

Does gravity affect the locomotive cost of movement?

A

yes – animal has to contend with gravity to be in locomotion, which increases the locomotive cost of movement (unless you are falling)

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9
Q

Gravity exerts the greatest effect on what animals?

A

terrestrial animals

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10
Q

The effects of gravity are reduced in what animals?

A

in animals where body density approximates that of their environment (aquatic animals)

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11
Q

What is buoyancy?

A

object will float if it is less dense than water (counteracts gravity)

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12
Q

How do animals control the movement of fluid around them?

A
  • objects create a complex pattern of flow as it moves through fluid (both air and water)
  • some animal locomotion involves moving fluids out of their direct path to increase efficiency
  • other animals control the movement of fluid to their advantage – ie. pushing the animal forward, or lifting it upwards
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13
Q

What are fluid mechanics influenced by? (3)

A
  • pattern of flow (laminar or turbulent)
  • fluid viscosity
  • object size, shape, and velocity
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14
Q

What is laminar flow?

A

(sheet-like flow) fluid travelling smoothly and in regular paths

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15
Q

What is turbulent flow?

A

there are differences in fluid’s speed and direction

  • at points it may intersect or counter the overall direction
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16
Q

How does cost associated with locomotion change between different types of flow?

A

cost associated with locomotion greatly increases in response to transition from laminar to turbulent flow, which depends on:

  • properties of the fluid (viscosity, density)
  • size and shape of object
  • velocity and direction of movement
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17
Q

What is Reynold’s number (Re)?

A
  • helps predict flow regime (determines if flow is laminar, transitional, or turbulent)
  • quantitatively assesses how easily an object will move through a fluid
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18
Q

What is the Reynold’s number (Re) for the different types of flow?

A
  • laminar: Re < 2000
  • transitional: 2000 < Re < 4000
  • turbulent: Re > 4000
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19
Q

What is the equation for Reynold’s number?

A

Re = (VLp) / μ

  • V = velocity
  • L = linear dimension of object that is encountering the fluid – turbulence increases as linear dimension increases
  • p = density of fluid
  • μ = viscosity of fluid
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20
Q

What is density? What is it influenced by?

A

measure of space between two particles in a fluid

  • influenced by changes in temperature and pressure
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21
Q

What is viscosity? What is it influenced by?

A

internal friction within a fluid

  • generally fixed in any given environment, although viscosity is influenced by temperature
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22
Q

Describe low viscosity in laminar flow.

A

each layer of laminar flow moves at the same velocity

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23
Q

Describe high viscosity in laminar flow.

A

layer of laminar flow in contact with the object moves more slowly because of interactions with the object

  • impact of the object is reduced further from the object
  • fluid resists motion because its molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction
  • recall boundary layer
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24
Q

What is the boundary layer?

A

microscopic layer of fluid that is slowed by the object

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25
Q

How does Reynold’s number (Re) influence animal locomotion?

A
  • larger animals have higher Re than smaller animals
  • viscous effects: viscosity of fluid’s relationship to velocity of movement and properties of the surface of the animal that interacts with the fluid
  • inertial effects: object will resist any change of motion as it moves through space, which is related to the object’s mass and moment
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26
Q

What is drag?

A

forces that oppose forward movement of objects moving through liquid

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27
Q

What are the two types of drag?

A
  • friction drag
  • pressure drag
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28
Q

What is friction drag?

A

drag caused by the friction of a fluid against the surface of an object that is moving through it

  • directly proportional to the area of the surface in contact with the fluid
  • increases with velocity
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29
Q

What is pressure drag?

A

force required to redirect a fluid around a moving object

  • increases with density
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30
Q

What influences the amount of both pressure and friction drag?

A

shape of the object

  • ie. consider three objects with same L, Re, and velocity through liquid – teardrop shape has the lowest overall drag, but largest friction drag because it is the biggest
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31
Q

Land Locomotion

What is the main challenge facing terrestrial locomotion?

A

gravity

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32
Q

Land Locomotion

Describe the relationship between body mass and skeletal mass in mammals.

A

direct relationship between body mass and skeletal mass

  • most birds and mammals use limbs to lift the body off the ground, which requires thicker and more robust bones and musculature to move it
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33
Q

Land Locomotion

How do some animals (ie. amphibians) reduce the metabolic costs associated with fighting gravity?

A

by being in direct contact with the ground

34
Q

Land Locomotion

Describe the density of terrestrial animals vs. their surrounding fluid (air).

A

terrestrial animals are much more dense than air

35
Q

Land Locomotion

How does gravity affect the costs of transport when animals walk or run?

A
  • energy is required to counteract the effects of gravity
  • forward locomotion adds additional costs – movement of a leg forward drops the animals centre of gravity, and muscular work is required to slow the descent
  • relationship between forward velocity and metabolic rate tends to be linear for running animals
36
Q

Land Locomotion

Describe the relationship between size and muscle contraction.

A
  • animals that display good energy economies tend to have long legs
  • smaller animals have less energy efficient muscle fibres
37
Q

Land Locomotion

Muscular contractions are generated as what component of force?

A

generated as the vertical component of the ground reaction force when a limb makes contact with the ground

38
Q

Land Locomotion

What does the geometry of muscle and bones determine?

A

determines the relationship between the force generated by the muscle and the type of movement that results

39
Q

Land Locomotion

How does the location of muscle insertion on the bone affect movement?

A

can affect level dynamics, speed, and force

  • cheetah muscle is closer to the joint (larger arc) – increase speed
  • lion muscle is further from the joint – increase force
40
Q

Land Locomotion – Horses

Describe the different running styles (gaits) of horses.

A

three types: walking, trotting, galloping

  • each style of running has an optimal velocity at which the cost of locomotion is minimal
  • animals typically prefer to move at velocities where the cost of locomotion is lowest
41
Q

Land Locomotion – Horses

What has the intense selection for performance (running speed) of horses resulted in?

A

resulted in the emergence of a ‘weak link’ in the O2 transport cascade

  • high VO2 max observed in elite horses is related to muscle mitochondrial content in a predictable manner – increases with increasing mitochondrial volume, which supports higher metabolic rates
42
Q

Land Locomotion – Horses

What is the cardiac output of horses related to?

A
  • heart size
  • VO2 max
43
Q

Land Locomotion – Horses

What is the athletic performance in thoroughbred horses limited by?

A

lung design

  • exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH) is common following prolonged intense exercise in thoroughbred horses
44
Q

Land Locomotion

Describe the efficiency of jumping.

A
  • some organisms can achieve high rate of locomotion with low costs of transport
  • energetic efficiencies are thought to be due to storage of elastic energy in tendons and ligaments in rear legs and tail
45
Q

Land Locomotion

Describe the energetic efficiency of kangaroos.

A
  • O2 consumption rate was measured at increasing running speeds
  • metabolic costs of running decrease with increase in hopping speed, but not running
  • even at 22 km/hr, oxygen consumption rate was less than half of VO2 max
46
Q

Land Locomotion

Describe the energetic efficiency of fleas.

A
  • fleas can jump up to 50x their height at incredible speeds
  • no unique muscles to directly power the jump – instead muscles are used to deform the exoskeleton, storing mechanical energy in a recoil that is then released and transferred to its oversized rear legs to propel it off the ground
47
Q

Land Locomotion

Do penguins use more or less metabolic energy compared to other terrestrial animals? Why?

A

penguins use 2x more metabolic energy than other terrestrial animals of a similar mass to walk a given distance

  • thought to be due to side-to-side waddling requiring excessive work
  • high cost of walking in penguins is due to their short legs, which require them to generate muscular force rapidly
  • waddling allows penguins to recover ~80% of their mechanical energy during each stride due to a pendulum-like effect
  • efficiency in walking is as much about technique as the bones and muscle that power it
48
Q

Air Locomotion

What are the main challenges faced by animals that can fly?

A
  • gravity
  • fluid mechanics
49
Q

Air Locomotion

Describe the curve for velocity vs. metabolic rate in flying animals.

A

U-shaped curve

  • shape of the curve can vary due to morphological features (ie. wing shape, how streamline, etc.)
50
Q

Air Locomotion

What is an aerofoil (or hydrofoil)?

A

upper curved surface and flattened lower surface

51
Q

Air Locomotion

Describe the dynamics around aerofoils.

A
  • as the foil moves forward, air collides with the leading edge, increasing air pressure
  • as air slides upwards, it is compressed
  • as air continues its path along the top and curves downward, it creates a low pressure area
  • along the bottom, flow is relatively smooth across the foil
  • pressure differential across vertical axis of the foil equates to a force (lift) – some force is lost as drag
52
Q

Air Locomotion – Lift

What is lift?

A

force that counteracts the effects of gravity and overcomes body weight

  • acts as right angle to the direction of motion through the fluid, pushing air down and behind in order to overcome body weight and effects of gravity
53
Q

Air Locomotion – Lift

What is the amount of lift generated by an aerofoil influenced by?

A
  • shape
  • angle of attack
54
Q

Air Locomotion – Lift

How does the shape of an aerofoil influence the amount of lift the aerofoil can generate?

A
  • the longer the curved surface, the greater the lift
  • the greater the surface area, the greater the drag
55
Q

Air Locomotion – Lift

What is the angle of attack (AoA)?

A

angle of the aerofoil relative to the horizontal

56
Q

Air Locomotion – Lift

How does the angle of attack (AoA) of an aerofoil influence the amount of lift the aerofoil can generate?

A
  • influences the pattern of fluid flow, and consequently lift
  • the greater the AoA, the greater the lift
57
Q

Air Locomotion – Lift

What must occur in order to generate lift?

A

air must flow over the aerofoil

58
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust

What is thrust?

A

forward force moving an object in the direction of motion (propulsive force)

59
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust

What does thrust counteract?

A

drag

60
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust

How can thrust be generated? (3)

A
  • by taking advantage of gravity
  • by harnessing naturally occurring air currents
  • by movement of aerofoil (flapping)
61
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust and Gliding

How is thrust generated during gliding?

A
  • in comparison to true flight, aerofoil structures are simple in nature
  • aerofoil is stationary and thrust is generated by descent toward ground
  • aerofoil relies on a large surface area and provides some lift, but it is not sufficient to remain aloft indefinitely
62
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust and Soaring

What is soaring?

A
  • only birds perform soaring flight
  • soaring involves the act of gliding while maintaining altitude
  • in general, soaring is associated with elongate, narrow wing shapes
  • lift is generated by harnessing upward air currents
63
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust and Flapping

Describe the different muscles birds use for flapping.

A
  • birds use their pectoralis muscle to power downstroke and supracoracoideus to power upstroke
  • type of flight affects size of different muscles – pectoralis muscle for downstroke is larger than supracoracoideus muscle for upstroke
  • diversity in wing structure and flopping patterns
64
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust and Flapping

How is thrust generated during flapping?

A
  • during downstroke, wings typically also twist as it moves – this generates a vortex of air at the leading edge and the tips of the wing, which provides thrust
65
Q

Air Locomotion – Thrust and Flapping

How is lift and thrust generated in insects?

A
  • generation of lift and thrust are through similar mechanisms as birds
  • muscle arranged for flapping is either direct or indirect
66
Q

Swimming Locomotion

Describe the density and viscosity of water in comparison to air.

A
  • water is incompressible
  • 800x more dense than air
  • 60x more viscous than air
67
Q

Swimming Locomotion

Do animals that swim have low or high costs of transport?

A
  • they have some of the lowest costs of transport for a given body mass
  • costs typically increase exponentially with velocity, primarily due to increases in drag at high velocity
68
Q

Swimming Locomotion

How do aquatic animals counteract the effects of gravity?

A

they modify body composition to increases buoyancy

69
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Buoyancy

What is a swim or gas bladder?

A

air-filled bladder in fish that aid in buoyancy

70
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Buoyancy

What are the two types of swim bladders?

A
  • physoclist swim bladder
  • physostome swim bladder
71
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Buoyancy

What is a physoclist swim bladder?

A
  • no direct connection to outside
  • inflated by gas gland that causes localized acidosis in blood, which forces O2 off hemoglobin
  • deflated by O2 diffusion into blood at the oval
72
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Buoyancy

What is a physostome swim bladder?

A

inflated by gulping air and transferring it to the swim bladder via a direct connection between the gastrointestinal tract and the swim bladder, pneumatic duct

73
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Buoyancy

Apart from swim bladders, how else do some organisms increase buoyancy to counteract gravity?

A

some organisms also regulate and accumulate the amount of positively buoyant metabolites (ie. fats)

74
Q

Swimming Locomotion

During swimming, how does the manipulation of water flow occur?

A
  • passively: by possessing streamlined body shapes and surface textures which alter flow conditions along the body to reduce drag
  • actively: by using fins and paddles which regulate water movement that are shed into the wake as vortices
75
Q

Swimming Locomotion

What is vorticity?

A

tendency of a fluid to spin or rotate

  • vortices and other fluid movements provide the force to propel animals forward
  • vortices of fluid movement are a consequence of the transfer of force from the fin to environment
  • as fish move through water, the flapping caudal fin leaves a series of interlinked vortices in its wake
  • these fluid movements ultimately provide the force that propels fish forward
76
Q

Swimming Locomotion
What do hydrofoil tails generate?

A

generates lift-based thrust

77
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Fin Shape

What does the shape of caudal/tail fins correspond to?

A

shape corresponds to cruising speed of fish

78
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Fin Shape

What are the two types of fin shapes?

A
  • homocercal fins
  • heterocercal fins
79
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Fin Shape

What are homocercal fins? What force is produced?

A

symmetrical tail fins extending beyond the end of the vertebral column

  • produce horizontal force component (thrust) without vertical force component (lift) – energy is therefore conserved by producing force only in the direction of motion
  • ie. most bony fishes, mako shark
80
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Fin Shape

What are heterocercal fins? What force is produced?

A

tail fins with unequal lobes in which the vertebral column turns upward into the larger lobe

  • can be weak (shorter) or strong (longer)
  • with each stroke, the larger dorsal portion produces a net force to push the tail forward and up – this force posterior to the centre of gravity causes torque that pushes the anterior downward
  • ie. sharks – blue, thresher
81
Q

Swimming Locomotion – Fish

How are fish muscles organized?

A
  • muscles are layered and form W-like pattern along the length of the animal
  • separation of white and red muscle
  • many fish species have ‘pink’ muscle fibres in between red and white

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