Lecture 1 (Article, Knowledge Clips and Chapters) Flashcards
since this is everything it is a lot
1
Q
Definition of Culture (2)
A
- any kind of information (idea, belief, habit) people get from other members of their species through social learning
- dynamic group of people sharing a similar context or environment
2
Q
Challenges of Culture (4)
A
- fluid boundaries: cultural boundaries are not distinct so differentiating between groups is hard
-dynamic entities: cultures change over time
-there is a lot of member variability (temperament, experiences etc.)
research findings thus reflect average tendencies and do not apply equally to all members
3
Q
General Psychology (4)
A
- psychological processes are invariant and universal
- differences are superficial and reflect noise
- mind independent from culture
- goal is to understand mind independent of the content and context
4
Q
Cultural Psychology (4)
A
- psychological processes are shaped by culture
- differences are real and reflect deep structure
- mind intertwined with culture
- goal is to understand the mind interdependent with its content and context
5
Q
Figure Line Task Study (5)
A
- participants shown a box with a line in it (stimulus box)and perform two tasks
- absolute task: draw a line in the first smaller box that is identical to the length in the stimulus box
- relative task: draw a line in the second smaller box that is identical in proportion to the stimulus box
- western cultures perform better at absolute task and vice versa
- brain scan: western cultures find the relative task more attention requiring and vice versa
6
Q
The Sambia Study (3)
A
- tribe known for their ritualized homosexual behaviour
- while in westernized societies homosexuality and bisexuality and minority sexualities, among Sambian men they are universal and natural stages of life
- thus various cultural experiences can lead to diverse understandings of sexuality
7
Q
Psychological Universals: Abstract vs Specific
A
- there is controversy about whether we should present phenomena in specific terms or abstract terms
- abstract terms lead to more evidence for universals, but the phenomena are then often too abstract to be of much use
8
Q
Levels of Universality (4)
A
- nonuniversal: psychological process does not exist in all cultures (abacus reasoning)
- existential universal: process is available to all cultures but differs in function across them (intrinsic motivation)
- functional universal: process has the same function across all cultures but is not equally accessible (costly punishments)
- accessibility universal: process is equally accessible in all cultures
9
Q
WEIRD Societies (3)
A
- Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich and Democratic
- we do not know much about the extent of universality of psychological processes because studies are largely on WEIRD societies
-these samples are not even representative of Westerners generally because studies generally recruit psych students
10
Q
Muller-Lyer Illusion (2)
A
- two lines that are the same length that look different
- people raised in cultures where they are not exposed to carpentered corners (i.e. San), are not susceptible to the illusion because they do not learn that such corners provide depth cues
11
Q
Multicultural Approach (2)
A
- people of different cultures tend to get along better with this approach
- focusing on and respecting group differences
12
Q
Color-blind approach (1)
A
- approach that focuses on people’s common human nature
13
Q
Ethnocentrism (1)
A
- error of judging people from other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture
14
Q
Which cultures to study? (1)
A
- meaningful and easy to interpret results are more likely to be found if RQ guides choice of research samples as opposed to randomly selecting cultures
15
Q
How to make meaningful comparisons (2)
A
- study the cultures that will be in the study and learn about them
- methodological equivalence: ensure that the cultures that you are comparing perceive the methods that are used in identical ways
16
Q
Problems with methodological equivalence (4)
A
- sometimes slightly different procedures are needed in each of the cultures which decreases experimental control
- thus most research has been done on industrialized societies
- this decreases generalizability
- this also decreases power since the groups of the IV are similar
17
Q
Surveys (1)
A
- can be problematic to compare averages across cultures
18
Q
Translation Option Problems with Surveys (3)
A
- original language is kept and only people who are bilingual English speakers are studied, but they may have poorer English skills, not be representative and respond differently than they would in their native language
- or the materials are translated but this can be hard since some psychological terms do not have equivalents in other languages
- solution: back translation method to reduce variability in meaning between languages
19
Q
Back Translation Method (4)
A
- translator translates materials from language A to B
- then a different translator translates the materials back from B to A
- the original and twice translated versions are compares to resolve discrepancies
- results in more literal translations where some of the original meaning might get lost though
20
Q
Socially Desirable Responding (2)
A
- responses are distorted by motivation to be evaluated positively by others
- solution is to add a scale that measures one’s desire to respond socially desirable
21
Q
Moderacy Bias (3)
A
- people tend to respond by choosing an item close to the midpoint
- more common among East Asian than European American people
- solution: avoid middle response option or use yes/no format
22
Q
Extremity Bias (3)
A
- where people tend to agree choose an item close to the end of the scale
- more common among Hispanic and African American than European American people
- solution: use yes/no format (but reduces variance)
23
Q
Acquiescence Bias (3)
A
- where people tend to agree with most items
- more common among East Asians than European Americans
- solution: reverse score or avoid general items by specifying context
24
Q
Standardizing Data (3)
A
- can solve moderacy, extremity and acquiescence bias
- each person’s scores are averaged and then z-scores are calculated to indicate how participants respond to each item compared to typical way of responding
-only appropriate for differences in pattern of responding, not comparing average level of responses across cultures in a single measure
24
Q
Reference Group Effect (1)
A
- tendency for people to evaluate themselves by comparing themselves to others from their own cultures
25
Q
How to solve reference group effect (2)
A
- avoid subjective measures that might have different standards across groups and use concrete measures instead
- i.e. : “if a friend of mine needed help with school, I would cancel my own plans to help” is more concrete than “I am helpful”
26
Q
Deprivation effects (3)
A
- the tendency for people to value something more when it is lacking in their culture (i.e. a culture that lacks personal safety may express valuing it more)
- there is sometimes a discrepancy between self report measures of values and other indicators
- solution would be to see if answers from self report measures correspond with results from other evidence sources
27
Q
Cultural Priming (1)
A
- method that makes ideas associated with particular cultural meaning systems for accessible to the participants
- i.e. certain ways of thinking may be more present in A than B, but B still thinks this way to an extent so priming can make it more accessible to B
28
Q
Methods that can be used in cultural psychology research (3)
A
- surveys
- experimental method
-neuroscience methods (EEG, fMRI)
29
Q
Occam’s Razor (1)
A
- the principle that any theory should make as few assumptions as possible, simple is best
30
Q
Situation Sampling (3)
A
- a 2 step method that is used to compare cultures with psychological measures
1. Generating: participants from at least 2 cultures are asked to generate multiple specific situations they have experienced
2. Comparing: different groups of participants from the same cultures are given the generated situations and are asked to imagine how they would feel if if they were in said situation
31
Q
Analysis of Situation Sampling (3)
A
- allows for 2 types of analysis
1. are there differences in the ways people from different cultures respond to situations (if yes, learned cultural experiences govern reactions to all kinds of situations)
2. does the cultural origin of the situation lead to different responses in general (if yes, the 2 cultures provide participants with different kinds of experiences)
32
Q
Unpackaging (1)
A
- identifying the underlying variables that give rise to different cultural experiences (7)
33
Q
Case Study: The Culture of Honor in the Southern US
A
- larger amount of herders in the south
-it may be adaptive for herders to maintain a sense of honour by responding with violence when taken advantage of - archival data: argument related murders were higher in the south
- survey data: southerners more likely to have positive attitudes toward violence related to defending honour
- physiological: testosterone increase in southerners but not northerners after an insult
-behavioural: southerners moved away slower from confederate when insulted - field: southern employers were more sympathetic to applicants who served time for manslaughter of someone who slept with his girlfriend
34
Q
Most people are not WEIRD (3)
A
- main point: behavioural scientists must stop doing most research on Westerners
- universality: much research assumes that fundamental cognitive and affective processes are universal across populations, but growing evidence suggests otherwise
- generalizability: only using WEIRD samples harms generalizability
35
Q
Lecture Culture Definition (3)
A
- culture is LEARNED not inherited
- culture is SHARED
- culture is SYMBOLIC
36
Q
What is culture not? (4)
A
- it does not only consist of values
- it is not the same as a nation
- it is not homogeneous
-it is not stable over time
37
Q
Cultural Values (5)
A
- preferences for one state of affairs over another, distinguishes cultures
- they are heterogeneous within and between cultures
- they are a continuum rather than exclusive categories
- none of the two ends of this continuum is better, but one end may be more functional or historically prevalent in a given culture than the other end
- BUT they are not the only factors needed to understand cultural variation
38
Q
Individualism-Collectivism (1)
A
-individuals prioritize personal goals vs group goals
39
Q
Tightness-Looseness (1)
A
- there is tolerance of deviant behaviour and severity of punishment for norm violations
40
Q
High-Low Power Distance (1)
A
- inequality between individuals is accepted in a society
41
Q
Uncertainty Tolerance - Avoidance (1)
A
- there is tolerance for ambiguity and need for formal rules
42
Q
Masculinity-Femininity (1)
A
- social gender roles are distinct and emphasis is placed on feminine vs. masculine value
43
Q
Long term-short term orientation (1)
A
- individuals direct their actions on future
rewards vs. present (and past) rewards
44
Q
Indulgence-Restraint Orientation
A
-society allows free gratification of basic human drives related to enjoying life
45
Q
Research Method to Study Cultural Variation (1)
A
- mediation model is often used, where an explanatory variable is sought out to explain the relationship between culture and another variable
46
Q
COSI concerns (4)
A
- causation: how do I design the study and what conclusions can I draw?
- operationalization: how do I measure my variables and how do I construct my material?
- sampling: which cultures should I study?
- interpretation: what do my data tell me?
47
Q
Construct equivalence
A
similarity of the meaning of the construct across cultures
48
Q
Methodological equivalence
A
equality in the familiarity of stimulus material and response procedure
49
Q
Linguistic equivalence:
A
translation accuracy and retention of connotations
50
Q
Cultural product method (5)
A
- method of studying cultural differences in which cultural products are analyzed and coded on certain criteria
- pros: cultural products directly reflect most prevalent ideas and messages, available data
- cons: mostly requires trained coders, limited scope so should be supplemented with other evidence
51
Q
Cultural priming pros and cons
A
- can solve issues with equivalence
- allows for causal inferences for the effect of cultural mindset
- culture is chronic but a cultural mindset is only temporary
52
Q
Testing for universality
A
- Convenience sampling: select 2 maximally different cultures in terms of the most relevant factors.
+ If cultures do not differ there is strong evidence for universality. - If cultures differ you do not know what variable caused the difference because you would
have to control for all the relevant factors that the cultures differ on.
53
Q
Testing for cultural variance
A
Just minimal difference sampling: match 2 cultural groups in all non-cultural variables, so that
the only difference left is the phenomenon of interest.
+ If it explains differences there is some initial evidence that culture shapes the phenomenon.
- The evidence is not definite, because culture was not manipulated.
- We often end up comparing WEIRD university students which makes generalization limited.
