LEC.145 Biodiversity and Conservation

Question 1

Which is the most diverse group of land plants?

Answer 1

Flowering plants (angiosperms)

Question 2

What is the gradient of species richness?

Answer 2

Latitudinal from tropics to poles (except for some species e.g. seabirds most abundant/diverse in high latitudes)

Question 3

What are the 4 hypotheses for there being more diversity at the tropics?

Answer 3

1. Geographic area (shape of planet means more area at tropics)
2. Energy-species (availability of resources + climate dictates no. co-existing species in given area)
3. Rapoport’s Rule (geographic range of species decreases from poles-tropics)
4. Evolutionary speed (tropics have had long time stability + faster rates of evolution)

Question 4

What are 3 explanations for Rapoport’s Rule?

Answer 4

1. Climatic variability greater at high latitudes so broad niche required to survive
2. Glaciation (species with high dispersal ability repopulate north so have large geographic range)
3. Competition between species (tropics have more competition so restricted habitat and small niches)

Question 5

What are 4 ways of measuring biodiversity?

Answer 5

1. Species richness (alpha diversity)
2. Species composition (beta diversity)
3. Phylogenetic diversity (higher diversity when species in community are less genetically related)
4. Functional diversity

Question 6

Define endemism

Answer 6

Species richness of rare species

Question 7

Why are biodiversity measurements important?

Answer 7

Provide tools for selecting areas to prioritise for conservation

Question 8

Define a biodiversity hotspot

Answer 8

Geographical area that ranks particularly high in species richness (also based on levels of endemism)

Question 9

What is a complementarity approach?

Answer 9

Conserving as much biodiversity as possible in a limited area of land available for conservation

Question 10

What is positively related to species richness and provides ecosystem services that are useful to humans?

Answer 10

Ecosystem functions

Question 11

Define competitive exclusion

Answer 11

When most competitive species drives others to extinction

Question 12

What are the 2 types of theories on regulation of local diversity?

Answer 12

1. Equilibrium theories
2. Non-equilibrium theories

Question 13

What do non-equilibrium theories on the regulation of local diversity suggest?

Answer 13

That community diversity is due to processes that prevent equilibrium being reached i.e. interfere with competitive exclusion

Question 14

What do equilibrium theories on the regulation of local diversity suggest?

Answer 14

That community diversity is regulated by processes of competition + evolution to attain a steady + stable state

Question 15

What are the 3 equilibrium theories?

Answer 15

1. Niche concept (specialisation enables more species to co-exist in a given area)
2. Heterogenity (more diverse habitats have more niches e.g. vertical structure of trees)
3. Island biogeography theory (species diversity = island area + isolation (balance between forces of immigration + extinction))

Question 16

How does the species-area relationship influence extinction?

Answer 16

Forces of extinction decrease with size (higher resource abundance + habitat heterogenity)

Question 17

How does isolation influence immigration?

Answer 17

Forces of immigration increase on near islands (speciation is more important on remote islands)

Question 18

What are the 2 non-equilibrium theories?

Answer 18

1. Diversity-productivity relationship (species richness unimodally related to productivity, peak diversity at intermediate productivity)
2. Intermediate disturbance hypothesis (low disturbance = competitive exclusion, intermediate disturbance = max diversity due to prevention of competitive exclusion, high disturbance = low diversity as few species survive)

Question 19

What is the dynamic equilibrium model?

Answer 19

Highest diversity under conditions where neither disturbance nor competitive exclusion dominate

Question 20

What are the 2 types of succession?

Answer 20

1. Primary (from sterile beginnings, non-living e.g. volcanoes, glaciers)
2. Secondary (on previously colonised land after major disturbance e.g. landslides, fire)

Question 21

What are the 2 types of succession process?

Answer 21

1. Autogenic (species change due to interactions between organisms themselves e.g. competition)
2. Allogenic (species change due to external, non-biological factors e.g. climate change)

Question 22

Describe the traits of early successional species (colonisers, “r-selected”)

Answer 22

Small, fast-growing, produce many seeds, often no dormancy required (germinate if conditions are favourable), often N fixers e.g. lichens, cyanobacteria, allocate more energy to reproduction than biomass

Question 23

Describe the traits of late successional species (competitors, “K-selected”)

Answer 23

Large, slow-growing, dormancy, large seeds, competitive (canopy species), allocate more energy to biomass than reproduction

Question 24

Define seres

Answer 24

Successional stages with characteristic vegetation types + associated biota

Question 25

What are the 2 types of species replacement models?

Answer 25

1. Inhibition model (early arrivals competitively inhibit (e.g. light competition), spread rapidly, + monopolise resources 2. Facilitation model (succession = series of sequential invasions, each dependant on site amelioration by earlier colonist, species die out since changes in env. are better suited for later colonists)

Question 26

Which type of species replacement model is more important when conditions are severe?

Answer 26

Facilitation model

Question 27

When was the International Union for Conservation of Nature established?

Answer 27

1948

Question 28

Who introduced the concept of conservation biology in 1968?

Answer 28

Dashmann

Question 29

What are the 4 types of value of species/habitats?

Answer 29

1. Instrumental 2. Ecological 3. Intrinsic (non-use) 4. Uniqueness

Question 30

What are 4 examples of intrinsic species/habitat values?

Answer 30

1. Cultural 2. Ecosystem services e.g. pollination 3. Recreational 4. Transformational

Question 31

What are 3 examples of instrumental species/habitat values?

Answer 31

1. Food 2. Medicine 3. Ecotourism

Question 32

Describe ecological species value

Answer 32

Species diversity increases an ecosystem's stability/resilience, in particular its ability to adapt + respond to changing environmental conditions

Question 33

Describe uniqueness species value

Answer 33

Sites with distinct species composition have high contribution to beta diversity + help prevent biotic homogenisation

Question 34

Which species values generally have more moral consideration?

Answer 34

Intrinsic + instrumental

Question 35

What are 3 disadvantages of species-based conservation?

Answer 35

1. In conflict with Indigenous people 2. Take priority over others 3. Become extinct if we fail

Question 36

What are the 7 drivers of biodiversity loss?

Answer 36

1. Habitat loss + fragmentation 2. Over-exploitation 3. Invasive species 4. Pollution 5. Global climate change 6. Underlying drivers e.g. agricultural expansion 7. Synergistic effects of different factors

Question 37

What are 3 types of pollution (toxic or non-toxic) that drive biodiversity loss?

Answer 37

1. DDT insecticide (long-lasting, easily spread, has declined British raptor pop. since 1950s as DDT thins egg shells) 2. Non-toxic plastic microbeads directly consumed by many species 3. Non-toxic light pollution that affects behaviour of nocturnal animals

Question 38

How does climate change drive biodiversity loss?

Answer 38

Species differ in thermal optimum and range of temps. they can tolerate so selective disadvantage when temps. increase

Question 39

What 2 things can species change as a response to climate change?

Answer 39

1. Phenology (migration patterns, reproductive events) 2. Distribution (expansions polewards + uphill)

Question 40

Which 3 types of species are less likely to be able to adapt/respond to climate change?

Answer 40

1. Polar/high elevation species (already at max thermal tolerance + nowhere to go if habitats become warmer) 2. Tropical mountain species (narrow thermal tolerance + can't emigrate from where they are) 3. Species with low mobility e.g. coral reefs

Question 41

What are synergistic effects and give an example of how they drive biodiversity loss?

Answer 41

When impact of two factors together is greater than the sum of individual effects e.g. Duke of Burgundy butterfly - if climate improved, still can't respond to climate change because habitat isn't available (plants aren't as thermal tolerant as the butterflies)

Question 42

What does the Extinct in the Wild category mean in the IUCN's Red List?

Answer 42

When a species is known only to survive in captivity or as a naturalised pop. well outside the past range

Question 43

What are 3 pros of species-based conservation?

Answer 43

1. Species are more discrete entities than ecosystems 2. Convenient for monitoring 3. Public interest in species

Question 44

What are 3 cons of species-based conservation?

Answer 44

1. Little known about most species 2. Taxonomic bias (vertebrates + trees) 3. Species can't exist without their habitat

Question 45

What are 7 criteria for selecting areas for conservation?

Answer 45

1. Size of area 2. Intactness (fragmentation) 3. Site condition (disturbance) 4. Habitat rarity (e.g. Paramos) 5. Level of threat ("crisis ecoregions") 6. Fragility/vulnerability to future climate change (e.g. Gran Sabana ecosystem highly vulnerable to disturbance - soil compaction) 7. Biodiversity (richness/endemicity/threat hotspots, complementarity areas)

Question 46

How many terrestrial hotspots of biodiversity (areas that have exceptional concentrations of endemicity + threat) are there globally?

Answer 46

25

Question 47

Define complementarity areas

Answer 47

Represent as much biodiversity as possible in a limited area of land available for conservation

Question 48

What is a challenge of complementarity areas?

Answer 48

Hotspots of richness, threat, + endemicity differ to each other

Question 49

Define ex-situ conservation

Answer 49

Removal of species from their natural habitat into captivity for their long term conservation, such as to breed for reintroduction or to maintain a genetic stock (can also be private "hobbyist" collection or commercial breeding)

Question 50

Define in-situ conservation

Answer 50

Actions taken to preserve a species in its natural habitat

Question 51

What are 3 examples of ex-situ conservation?

Answer 51

1. Botanic gardens 2. Seed banks (domestic + wild plants) 3. Preservation of plant tissue (cryopreserved)

Question 52

What are 3 examples of in-situ conservation?

Answer 52

1. Zoos 2. Aquariums 3. Wildlife parks

Question 53

What are the 7 aims of ex-situ conservation?

Answer 53

1. Insurance against extinction 2. Reservoirs for reintroduction 3. Stock for breeding new varieties 4. Research (animal behaviour) 5. Education 6. Fundraising for in-situ conservation (most zoos support this) 7. Recreation

Question 54

What 5 things do reservoirs for reintroduction require (ex-situ conservation)?

Answer 54

1. Genetic diversity 2. Assisted reproductive tech. 3. Eliminated genetic defects 4. Controlled spread of disease 5. A release strategy

Question 55

What 5 negative things can captive breeding cause?

Answer 55

1. Loss of hunting ability 2. Predator blindness 3. Locomotion deficits 4. Loss of natural social behaviour 5. Imprinting

Question 56

What are 4 contemporary debates on ex-situ conservation?

Answer 56

1. Taxonomic bias (many threatened species overlooked) 2. Are zoos education or entertainment? 3. Expensive + distracts from in-situ conservation 4. For profit conservation

Question 57

What are 2 reasons why biodiversity is monitored?

Answer 57

1. Understanding baseline patterns e.g. migration 2. Changes over time in response to stressors e.g. climate change

Question 58

What are 2 ways of monitoring biodiversity?

Answer 58

1. Conservation drones (low cost, monitor + map terrestrial/aquatic ecosystems, support enforcement of protected areas) 2. Camera traps (remotely activated camera with motion/IR/light sensor as trigger, detect elusive species, can be used at remote/inhospitable sites, mark-recapture studies)

Question 59

What 3 things do good indicator species for monitoring have?

Answer 59

1. Sensitive enough to detect changes 2. Widely distributed 3. Provides continuous assessment over a wide range of stress

Question 60

Define mass extinction

Answer 60

Times when Earth loses more than 3/4 of its species in a geologically short interval

Question 61

How many mass extinctions have there been so far?

Answer 61

5 (may be entering the 6th)