Lec 6

Question 1

• 2 most influential teacher of the child
• 4 ways parent affect their children

Answer 1

Parenting styles & effects

• Who are the child’s most influential teachers
  
  • The child themselves
    
    • The active child – use opportunities to socialize
  • The parents
• Parents affect their children in many ways
  
  • direct instruction (aka tuition = parent teaching kids)
  • Indirect socialization (ex parents interact w/ other adults, children are indirectly socialized)
  • Social management
    
    • Direct/indirect social management: parents choose their children’s friends
    • Put them in situations that foster relationships
    • As children age -> less social management
  • Modelling
    
    • Ex model social b, how they should behave
• Parenting styles vary widely across families and cultures
• X

Question 2

• 2 dimensions parenting styles differ
• 4 main types of parenting (in WEIRD cultures)
  
  • high/low in the 2D?
• Which parenting style → best outcomes?
• → worst outcomes?
• Authoritative vs authoritarian parenting
  
  • → 2D differences?
• authoritarian
  
  • west vs asian perspective
    
    • -ve effects on children in the west?
    • +ve effects on children in the east?

Answer 2

• What specific ways do parenting styles differ
  
  • 2 dimensions
    
    • Warmth/responsiveness
    • Demandingness (strict)
  • Rs identified these 2 key areas of parenting that make a big difference raising children
  • There is high or low responsiveness and demandingness
  • These variables result in 4 types of parenting/parenting styles: *(nay vary across culture)
    
    • Authoritative
    • Authoritarian
    • Permissive
    • Rejecting-neglecting
• Authoritative parenting (supportive + demanding)
  
  • Relationship is reciprocal, responsive, bidirectional communication
• Permissive parenting (supportive + undemanding)
  
  • Indulgent, little control
• Authoritarian parenting (unsupportive + demanding)
  
  • Controlling, power-assertive, unidirectional communication
• Rejecting-neglecting parenting (unsupportive + undemanding)
  
  • uninvolved
  • • Baumrind: produced the 4 dimensions
  • Authoritative parenting tend to produce the best outcomes of children
    
    • * not true across culture
  • Rejecting-neglecting parenting -> produce most adverse outcomes
    
    • True across cultures
• Each style has diff effects on child
• X

Authoritative parenting

• High in warmth/responsiveness
• High demandingness
• Set clear standards for their children’s b
• Allow children autonomy w/in their limits (ex 4 yo in playground)
• Pay attention to children’s concern
• Consistent and measured in disciplining of child
  
  • (ex expectations are consisting)
• NOTE: no parent is this super parenting
• Effects
  
  • Children are more competent, self-assured, populat among peers
  • Better verbalizers
  • More prosocial
  • Better grades and better in employment
  • Less drug abuse and problematic b

Authoritarian parenting

• LOW in warmth/responsiveness
• HIGH in demandingness
• Enforce b/thinking through parental power
  
  • IOW Coerce child to behave and think in a certain way
  • Ex via threats, punishment
• Believe the -ve b comes from child (not the env, or other children’s fault)
• Engage in psychological control (control how they think)
  
  • * thought as -ve in the west; more +ve in Asian
• Effects
  
  • In North American families, children hv
    
    • Lower social and academic competence
    • Experience more bullying
    • Struggle w/ coping w/ stress
    • More depression, delinquency, and substance abuse
  • Chen & French: psychological control works differently in other communities
• Top hat: Chen article: C,A = +ve; N = -ve; outgoing is more +ve in individualistic cultures, shyness = -ve in west, +ve in east
• Boumerand: parents’ psych control -> -ve effects (not always true)
• Chen: parents -> psych control so children can adapt in culture -> more successful children

Question 3

• 2 reasons why parenting rs is mainly with moms
• emo vs physical care b/w mom vs dad
  
  • of all the care mom gives → emo vs physical?
  • of all the care dad gives → emo vs physical?
  • Overall care wise? mom vs dad? emo vs physical?
  • Physically
    
    • mom vs dad → proportionally, who gives more?
    • overall, who gives more?
      *

Answer 3

Moms and dads

• Most rs on parenting and parenting styles is conducted w/ moms
  
  • Why? At that time, dads are working, mom are at home
  • For the 12 mo parental leave -> usually the moms take it, spend more time w/ mom
• Paternal involvement is increasing in Canada
  
  • Ex. extending parental leave (this is for the other parent, usually the dad)
• When both parents work, moms still tend to spend more time w/ their children and engage in more
  
  • Of all the care mom gives, they give more emo than physical care
  • Of all the care dad gives, they give more physical than emo care
  • BUT: overall mom gives more emo and physical care than dads
• Dads engage in more play (esp physical play) PROPORTIONALLY!!!
  
  • Of all the play mom gives (4hrs): 1.5 hr of play (37%)
  • Of all the play dad gives (2hrs): 1 hr of play (50%)
  • BUT: overall mom plays more than dads
  • The amount of play is +vely correlated w/ +ve outcomes in childhood and adol
  • True for boys and girls
    
    • NOTE: many ppl think that physical play w/ dad is more important for boys -> not true

Question 4

• 3 ways siblings area +ve influence
• These +ve effects only persist when 3 criteria are met →?
• If the criteria are not met → 3 main consequences?

Answer 4

Siblings

• Often a +ve influence on children’s dev
  
  • Playmates
  • Social competence (modelling b from older sibling)
  • Sources of security, support, instruction, caregiving
• These +ve effects are more abundant when
  
  • Parents hv a good relationship w/ eo
  • Children grow up in a safe env where their needs are met
  • Parents treat children equitablu
    
    • Ex siblings competing w/ one another for limited resources (physical, emo) -> competition
• Problematic sibling relationships -> -ve effects
  
  • Sources of conflict and irritation
  • Contribute to eo disobedience, substance abuse, delinquency (-ve influences)
  • Contributions to anxiety and depression
    
    • Esp in situations of parental favoritism and parental discord
    • *worse when siblings are not treated equally and when resources are scarce

Question 5

• ?% of 1-5 yo in daycare
• 3 social dev effects
• 3 cog dev effects

Answer 5

Daycare

• More fam w/ 2 working parents (or single working parents), enrolment in daycare increased
  
  • 50%+ b/w 12mo – 5 yo are in daycare
• Effects daycare have on children’s dev
• X
• Effects
  
  • Social dev
    
    • For lose SES, daycare reduces externalizing problems among children
    • In countries w/ high quality daycare, social outcomes are +ve
    • Low quality daycare -> reverse these trends
      
      • Better to stay home for them
  • Cog dev:
    
    • High quality daycare modest +ve effect on cog dev
    • Low quality care may have -ve effect
    • The +ve effects are more pronounced for low SES children
      
      • Ex low SES parents spend less time w/ them, daycare is good

Question 6

• 2 main benefits of friendships
• 4 factors that influence how children choose their friends
• mere exposure effect
• why is proximity less important over time
• 3 main places children spend time w/ their friends
• x
• define nonfriendships
• things children do more with their friends over non friends → 6 things
• x
• friendship groups
  
  • when do cliques form?
  • cliques
    
    • characteristic of middle childhood cliques vs those after puberty
    • # of ppl
    • 2 main characteristics of boy groups
    • older children → ?
    • cliques then form → ?
    • Drawback of this research

Answer 6

Peer relationships in childhood and adol (friendships)

• Why are peer relationships important?
  
  • Dev self-worth empathy, acquisition of social skills
  • Close friendships associated w/ lower depressive symptoms (happier when they have friends)
• How do children choose their friends?
  
  • Proximity (spend most time w/)
    
    • Mere exposure effect: when we spend more time w/ someone, the more we like them
    • Becomes less important w/ age (kids become more mobile as they age -> travel; Internet)
  • Cog similarity
    
    • Similar sets of cog skills
  • Prosocial similarity
    
    • Ex high prosocial kids make friends who are also high in this
  • Gender
• Main places they spend time w/ their friends (2014)
  
  • 80% school
  • 60% someone’s house
  • 50%+ online

Friendships vs non-friendships

• Non-friendships: not enemies, kids you know but not friends w/
• How do children differ in the way that they interact w/ their friends vs their no-friends?
  
  • For friends
    
    • More prosocial b
      
      • Bb who spend more time w/ each other than to touch and smile, share, play more w/ friends in preschool
    • More pretend play
    • More cooperation
    • More similarity of interests
    • Mutual emo support
    • FIGHT more
      
      • Similar to siblings

Friendship groups

• Friendship gps change across dev age
• In early adol, friends begin to from cliques
  
  • Cliques: peer gps children voluntarily form or join themselves
  • In middle childhood, these cliques consist of the same sex
    
    • Cross gender membership in cliques increases after puberty
    • More dating
• b/w 3-10 ppl (boys’ gps tend tb larger, but this effect decreases w/ age)
• older children belong to more than 1 clique
• Cliques combine to form crowds
• But most of this rs on cliques, crowds are done in WEIRD ppl (European-american, high SES gps)

Question 7

• 3 main gaps in adol friendship
• Participants: when they started the study; how long?
• Population ethnicities → 3 main ones
• SES?
• Methods - measures used? → 3 types
• same-sex F relationships vs same-sex male relationships
  
  • In which race/gender are the relationships more intimate?
• Result trends
  
  • early-mid adol: F vs M
  • late adol: F vs M
    
    • reason
  • sex vs gender vs sexual orientation vs sexuality
  • transgender meaning
    
    • gender vs sex term

Answer 7

Way & Silverman (2012)

• Conduct longitudinal rs to fill 3 primary gaps in existing adol friendship literature
  
  • Old lit mainly used survey methodology
  • Lack of concurrent rs (during adol rather than post adol)
    
    • Ppl are recalling, they did not ask adol
  • Acontextual rs (in labs, and ignored culture)
• Longitudinal studies starting in 1^st yr of HS (~14 yo) and continue for 4-5 yrs
• Mostly black, Asian-American, and Latino adol
• Low SES
• Used
  
  • questionnaires
  • Semi-structured interviews
    
    • tell me about ur relationships w/ ur best friend
    • In what ways do you trust your best friends
  • Intense observation (ex at school)
• X
• What did the authors find about quality of friendships in adol
  
  • Intimacy in same-sex F relationships vs same-sex male relationships
    
    • Past lit: female relationships appear more intimate
    • Current lit/results:
      
      • There is remarkable similarity b/w M and F intimacy, esp at early ages of HS
      • Major gender differences in intimacy may come from studying white adol; the pattern does NOT hold for black adol
  • X
  • Looked at changes in friendship quality over time
    
    • Both boys/ and girls’ closeness w/ same-sex peers increases from early to middle adol
    • But boys’ intimacy begins to decrease in late adol
      
      • Many boys are sad that this intimacy decreased
      • But they still desire the closeness to cont
        
        • May be a cultural phenom (no homo)
    • Sex = biological, genetic (ex. M, F, intersex)
    • Gender = societal norms
    • Sexual orientation = sexual attraction
    • Sexuality = combination of the 3 above
  • Transgender: not a gender or sex term (has gender and sex component)
    
    • = biological sex and societal gender do not match the societal male and man

Question 8

• determinants of sexual orientation
  
  • biological cause
  • 2 env cause
  • when does sexual attraction begin

Answer 8

Sexuality and romantic relationships

• Special type of peer relationships: romantic relationships
• Formation of sexuality begins in infancy (maybe prior infancy) and childhood, but dev sign in adol
  
  • Sex (biological): M, F, intersex
  • Gender (identity): Man, Woman gender fluid, bigender
  • Sexual orientation = attraction

Determinants of sexual orientation

• Whether erotic feelings are directed at others of the same sex, another sex or more than one
• Causes
  
  • Biological: identical twins are more likely to hv the same sexual orientation than fraternal twins or non-twin siblings
  • The env
    
    • Prenatal hormone lv (birth order)
      
      • Later born male -> less androgens in utero -> influence sex orientation
    • Parenting; dunno directionality
      
      • Maybe bidirectional?
• Development:
  
  • Sexual attraction begins for most youth around the onset of puberty
  • Large inter-indiv variation