Lec 10 - Final

Question 1

TB Ch 6

• Muraven: effects of controlling emo vs posture vs record food
• 2 types of strength in SC
• What can training w/ small SC exercise do?

Answer 1

• Muraven
  
  • Measure ppl’s baseline of self control -> do depletion task to see how much it declines
  • All do a type of exercise for a few weeks (Assign ppl to do diff exercises)
  • Come back for another test
  • Gp 1: when they slouch, fix good posture (forced to spend energy to fix bad posture habit)
  • Gp 2: Record whatever they eat for the next 2 weeks
  • Gp 3: when they have bad feelings -> strive for +ve emo (largest gp)
  • Gp 4: control
  • Results
    
    • Those controlling emo for 2 weeks had no improvements in SC
      
      • ER does not rely on or strengthen willpower
    • Those work on posture and record what they ate -> Increase in SC
    • The more diligent, the more SC improved
• In SC, there are 2 types of strength: power and stamina
• Study
  
  • Ppl squeeze handgrip as long as they can (measure of willpower)
  • Do “try not to think of a white bear task”
  • Second handgrip test to see how much willpower is depleted
  • Work on posture for 2 weeks
  • Handgrip test (squeeze -> depletion task -> squeeze again)
  • Results
    
    • No improvement on handgrip test -> no increase in willpower
    • Had more stamina: 2^nd handgrip test, hold longer
    • IOW, willpower wasn’t depleted as fast as b4
• We can strengthen willpower by changing any habitual b
  
  • Ex. use non-dominant hand
  • Ex. don’t say Fuck, say shoot
• Small exercises help us deal w/ big challenges (ex. stick to budget)
• SC can be improved

Question 2

TB Ch 6

• Baumeister’s view on how to improve SC
• Licensing effect

Answer 2

• Get exercises to strengthen willpower for their goal
• Exercise SC in one area of life improve all areas of life (aka overall willpower)
  • Ex. exercise more -> better diet and vv
  • Ex. did self-control exercise -> less aggressive to partner
  • Doesn’t support licensing effect: when you act one good deed, you feel you have the “license” to sin
  • IOW: willpower gets stronger and less depleted

Question 3

Paper & Lec

• Common view of SC
• Define EF
• 3 parts of cybernetic model
• 3 ways to increase SC via cybernetic model?

Answer 3

• SC: most ppl see it as willpower and or EF
• EF: mental process that allow ppl to overcome urges, juggle competing tasks, and sustain attention
• Cybernetic
  
  • Has 3 components
    
    • Goal setting
    • Monitoring mismatches b/w goals and current b
    • Implementing b that is consistent w/ goals to reduce the size of b goal mismatches
  • These components are connected via feedback loop
    
    • Output og implementing systems feeds into monitoring system
    • The size of any b-goal mismatch is monitored until it is reduced to acceptable lv
  • Ex. Controlling one’s eating b
    
    • 1: dieter set specific goal for foods he wants to eat (ex. eat more broccoli and less chips)
    • 2: monitors eating b; see when his b deviates from eating goals (ex. eat chips)
    • 3: when discrepancy is detected, he changes b (ex. put down chips, eat broccoli)
• How to increase SC
• To increase control, can bolster any of 3 nodes
  
  • Bolster goals: Make goals more salient, more important
  • Bolster monitoring: Pay attention to goal-conflicts (or predict when conflict likely)
  • Bolster implementation: Take action when needed

Question 4

Paper & Lec - Goal setting

• SMART
• define goals
• Goal setting theory
• SDT and motivation
  *

Answer 4

Improving control by setting better more self-aligned goals

• Step 1 of SC: set goals
• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable
• Relevant (??)
• Time-bound
• To bolster goals, goals should be time-bound
  
  • Important to set deadlines to avoid procrastination (like self-imposed deadlines)
• Goals: mental rep of future desired outcomes ppl are committed
• Goal setting implies a person has committed thought, emo, and b to attain it
• Goals setting creates a discrepancy b/w what one wants tb like and what one is like now -> help SC
• Goal setting theory states that the simple act of setting a specific, challenging, attainable goal -> better SC (can’t be vague or no goal)
• Ex. dieter increase SC if he sets specific goal (eat salad for lunch 3 times a week this mo) rather than abstract one (try my best to eat well)
• Specific goals allow for straightforward monitoring goal b mismatches
  
  • This provides feedback and info on whether standards are met
• Vague or no goals -> no or barely any feedback -> can’t change
• Not all goals are equal
• If goals are aligned w/ personal balues -> more SC
• SDT: motivation on b depends on quality of motivation
  
  • Internally driven goals (seen are personally meaningful) are more easier to control, even when fatigued
  • Ex. when ppl are encouraged to adopt a personally meaningful goal, they are better at controlling and overriding impulses compared to a socially obligated goal
• Reason: autonomously selected goals are monitored w/ more urgency -> increase control implementation
• Thus if goals are self-aligned, it helps improve SC
  
  • This help us SC for unappealing tasks (do HW) when they are seen as helpful to personal goals (ex. be astronaut)

Question 5

• Ariely & Wertenboch, 2002 studies
• Study 1
  
  • Do students set deadlines
  • 2 types of deadlines most student set
• Study 2:
  
  • 3 gps
  • Results
  • Will people set costly deadlines?
  • Do self-imposed deadlines improve performance?
  • Do people set optimal deadlines?

Answer 5

• Ariely & Wertenboch, 2002
  
  • NOTE: data here may be fake
  • The study had 3 rs qs
    
    • Will people set costly deadlines? (ex. lose points if they don’t meet them)
    • Do self-imposed deadlines improve performance?
    • Do people set optimal deadlines?
• Study 1
  
  • Students in real MIT class need to submit 3 assignments and set their own costly deadlines
  • No later than last class
  • Penalties for missed deadline (ex. 5% off)
  • Q: Will Ss set deadlines before last class?
    
    • Yes b/c they have other competing goals
  • Results: Students self-impose costly deadlines on average
    
    • A chunk of students set deadlines as follows
      
      • 42 days before end of class for paper 1
      • 26 days before end of class for paper 2
      • 10 days before end of class for paper 3
    • A chunk will set all 3 papers due the last day of class
• Study 2
  
  • Ss have 21 days to submit 3 “proof reading” assignments for pay
    
    • They are paid to do 3 proof reading assignments
    • There are 3 gps
      
      • Evenly spaced deadline, (ex. wk 7, 14, 21)
      • self-imposed deadline
      • last class deadline
    • Get penalty if they don’t submit on time
• Q: Who will procrastinate most? Who will perform best?
  
  • Results: Even deadlines > self-imposed deadline > no deadline
    
    • Even deadlines: least errors, least delays, most earnings
    • Self-imposed deadlines not as evenly spaced as ideal
    • When self-imposed deadlines are evenly spaced, no extra advantage for even-spaced deadlines
    • *TDSB policy: all assignments due last day of class – bad idea
• The key is need to give yourself enough time to do assignments and a break in b/w
• Will people set costly deadlines? YES
• Do self-imposed deadlines improve performance? YES
• Do people set optimal deadlines? NO

Question 6

Precommitment

• Define
• Locking savings account
  
  • Do they help?
• Cash commitment device (stick K)
• Public pledge

Answer 6

Precommitment FTW!

• Aka People set costly measures in advance to reach their goals
• Precommitment device: Anticipating temptation & creating constraints to disrupt them
  
  • Ex. lock phone for 5 hrs
  • Ex. Odysseus – tied himself to mast (precommitment)
  • ColdTurkey internet blocker
• Locked Savings account
  
  • Ppl in South Africa can’t save enough money
  • Banks study if ppl will put money in locked savings account (put money; can’t get it out for a certain amount of time)
    
    • 20% of clients do that
    • They end up saving a lot more money
• Cash commitment device (stick K)
  
  • Put goal: ex. lose weight
  • Set cost: ex. if I don’t lose weight, I will then give money to cause you are against
• Public pledge
  
  • Ex. You tell family and friends you will lose 5 pounds this month

Question 7

Paper: goal monitoring

• define goal monitoring
• Awareness and achieving goal
• Where is the conflict monitoring system in the brain?
• Strongest SC ppl rx
• Those w/ autonomous/self-aligned goals rx

Answer 7

Improving control by monitoring

• Next step: pay attention to discrepancies b/w goals and current b
• These discrepancies alert ppl that their goals are in jeopardy
• This shifts b
• Ppl need to pay attention to when they failed to meet goal or when goal failure is likely
• This helps avoid future mistakes
• Ex. person tries to quit smoking should
  
  • pay attention to situations that have temptations
  • Attend to when she makes “goal mistake” – accepts friends offer for smoke
• Being aware that current b conflicts w/ nonsmoking goal -> help stop smoking

Conflict monitoring

• Nro models of control stress brain systems that monitor conflicts b/w goals and actual b
• These models suggest control is initiated by conflict-monitoring system from anterior cingulate cortex
• Can be captured by ERN
  
  • Indicates neural response to conflict or errors
• **Those who notice and react emo to goal conflicts and errors have most SC
• Rs indicate obesity and OHism are reduced is ppl can effectively monitor goals conflicts
• SC is related to college GPA
  
  • Those w/ autonomous/self-aligned goals have high ERNs and SC
• When we have SC -> attend and react to how one’s goals and b algin -> better attention

Question 8

Mindfulness meditation

• awareness
• acceptance
• 2 things that are not MM?
• Teper & Inzicht, 2013
  
  • Does meditation increase awareness and acceptance?
• Major finding
  *

Answer 8

Bolstering goal-monitoring
Mindfulness meditation

• Mindfulness:
  
  • Awareness: Bringing attention to experiences occurring in the present moment
  • Acceptance: Non-judgmental stance towards one’s thought, but especially one’s feelings
• Mindfulness in cultivated by practicing meditation
  
  • Focus on breath or mantra or patterns of thought
    
    • Not an emptying of mind (NOT not thinking)
    • Not a suppression of feelings

Does meditation increase the ERN?
Teper & Inzicht, 2013

• RQ: Does meditation increase conflict monitoring (e.g., ERN)?
• ERN is the measure of response to conflict (ex. goal to get qs right, but got it wrong)
• There are 2 aspects of mindfulness; community sample of ppl who did MM for 1 year
• Sample items
  
  • Awareness:
    
    • I am aware of what thoughts are passing through my mind.
    • When I am startled, I notice what is going on inside my body.
    • When I walk outside, I am aware of smells or how the air feels against my face.
  • Acceptance
    
    • I try to distract myself when I feel unpleasant emotions.
    • I try to stay busy to keep thoughts or feelings from coming to mind.
    • I tell myself that I shouldn’t feel sad.
• NOTE: the items are all reversed
• Results:
  
  • Those in meditation condition, the ERN is bigger during “error trials”
  • MM ppl have higher emotional acceptance than control (no diff on awareness)
• Critique:
• 1. Correlational design
• 2. Low statistical power
• High powered experiment needed - addressed

Point: acceptance increase monitoring

• Accepting your problems (rather than beating yourself up) -> change
• Acceptance: non-judgmental ownership of mistakes and flaws
• Accepting conflict & discrepancies allows people to stay focused on goals, avoid self-judgment, & implement change

Question 9

Paper goal implementing

• 2 models
  
  • resource
  • motivation shift/ preference
• Implementation intentions

Answer 9

Improving control by implementing goal-directed b

• A person attends to SC conflict -> implements b to reduce conflict
• Mental fatigue can hinder this

Depletion and fatigue

• Some studies suggest that SC depletion is due to change in motivational priorities
• After ppl engaged in cog work to control impulses, they prefer to engage in cog leisure rather than work
• SC is effortful and aversive
• SC fatigue causes the decreased motivation to pursue goals
• Fatigue is a barrier to implementing system
• If has less to do w/ depleted resources, and more w/ ppl’s preferences

Implementation intentions (specific If then rules)

• To strengthen implementing system, we can form implementation intentions or b plans that link anticipated situations w/ specified b
• They specify when, where, and how goal-directed b in advance
  
  • Ex. when I get home from work, I will exercise for 30 min
• Implementation intentions improve control by associating the control of one’s b/w specific situations
  
  • When there’s anticipated situation -> this cues b even under conditions of fatigue
• Power of intentions in study
  
  • Kids showed better SC of b when they elaborated on implementation intentions
• Doing all the strategies This helps defend implementing system against fatigue

Question 10

Implementing

mental contrasting

• Is goal setting enough?
• Why is the variance low?
• Multifinal
• 2 Solutions:
  
  • If then
  • MCII (mental contrasting implementation intention) vs +ve thinking
    *

Answer 10

Bolstering goals
implementation intentions (Duckworth thinks this is the most important); If X, then Y

• Setting goals is good, but not enough
  
  • GoalBehaviour (r ~ 0.5) (the association b/w setting goals and actually enacting the b is very low)
    
    • R^2 (variance) = .25 -> 25% of the variance is explained by setting a goal
    • Why so low? Goals are multifinal; confusion about what means to use when
      
      • Multifinal = 1 goal can be achieved in multiple ways
      • E.g., goal to work on op-ed project
• Solution: Implementation intentions (II)
  
  • Aka Pre-decide where, when, & what to do
  • “when X happens, I will perform Y”
    
    • “When I get home from school, I will read published op-eds to learn op-ed structure”
    • When it is 10AM, I will go for a run
  • Specific situation activates goal-response, which becomes automatized
  • Increases likelihood of meeting goals

Super-charging implementation intentions
mental contrasting

• Super-charging implementation intentions = set implementation intentions with imagined obstacles
• Results: Setting implementation intentions is improved when imagining obstacles & roadblocks to goals
• Aka Mental contrasting
  
  • How: Imagine desired future (goal) AND obstacles to desired future
  • E.g., goal=A in op-ed assignment; obstacle = chatty roommate
• Combine contrasting with II
  
  • E.g., if my roommate distracts me, I will wear noise cancelling headphones
• Duckworth, Kirby, Gollwitzer, & Oettingen., 2013
  
  • Examine if mental contrasting works in real life
  • Real 4^th graders in low-income school
    
    • did MCII (mental contrasting implementation intention) exercise or positive thinking control (ex. you can do this, you go the skills)
  • Achievement measured 2-3 months later
  • Results: Higher GPA and better attendance in MCIII group than control

Question 11

WOOP and summary

• WOOP vs +ve thinking
• summary 4 main strategies

Answer 11

Bolstering goals

• Woop
  
  • +ve thinking alone
    
    • Reduces energy to reach goal
    • Predicts lower physical and MH (aka lower wellbeing)
  • If we combine “+ve thinking” w/ “thinking about the potential obstacles” + “the steps to overcome the obstacles” -> more likely to r each goal
  • WOOP = specifying and imagining the wish, outcome, obstacle, and forming a plan
  • Engaging in Woop strengthens mental associations in the mind -> increases energy -> better performance
  • Study 1
    
    • Students did short WOOP exercise vs placebo
    • Do standardized test
    • Those in WOOP do 60% more practice questions than control gp
  • Study 2
    
    • Gp A: Info on benefits of healthy diet
    • Gp B: WOOP + info
    • Results: after 2 years, those in WOOP gp ate more vegetables than control
  • Those who use WOOP
    
    • Improve relationships
    • Better negotiators
    • Better grades
    • Better at losing weight
  • WOOP uses ppl’s ABC and make them motivationally intelligent
    
    • It’s low cost, easy to use, applies across life domains and demographics
    • You are motivated and skilled, make clearer decisions, take action, connect w/ others, engage in the world
• summary
• 1. Set concrete & challenging goals
• 2. Goals should be time-bound; set deadlines
• 3. Consider the where, when, & what of your goals (implementation intention)
• 4. Imagine the obstacles to success and how you will overcome them
     * Positive thinking is not enough

Question 12

Resource model

Brain trainings

• Meta analysis on resource model
• process model
  
  • 2 ways to increase SC
• Brain training
  
  • effect on near vs far transfer

Answer 12

Bolstering goal implementation
beyond inhibition training I

• Resource Model: Self-control is like a muscle that can be strengthened by “exercise”
  
  • But: does “exercise” work?
    
    • Evidence is mixed
• Study
  
  • meta-analysis
  • Results seem to suggest a large effect, d = 1.10
  • After using stats to correct for biases, very small effect
  • process model: improving SC needs hard work
    
    • increasing motivation and paying attention to the right things -> increase SC
    • Motivation and attention is improved when we accept/ own our errors, not ruminate about them

Bolstering goal implementation
beyond inhibition training II

• “Brain-training” programs promise that doing their exercises improve cognitive control, perhaps intelligence reasoning, and processing in real life
• Many companies sell apps & programs (Lumosity, LearningRx)
  
  • Worth $1 Billion

Brain training does not work
at least not in improvements in real life

• Positive evidence for improvements on practiced tasks
  
  • Practice Stroop for 30 days = Get better at Stroop
• Modest evidence for “near transfer”
  
  • Practice Stroop for 30 days = Get slightly better at Go/No-go task
• No evidence for “far transfer”
  
  • Practice Stroop for 30 days = No improvements on real life self-control; no prevention of cognitive decline

Question 13

Temptation bundling

• Temptation bundling
• Results on effectiveness
• Reason

Answer 13

Bolstering goal implementation
make it fun!

• Make the goal enjoyable (SDT)
  
  • Set Autonomous goals
• Temptation bundling: If goal is not enjoyable, bundle it with something that is
• Katy Milkman
  
  • You have smth you should do but really don’t want to (ex. go to gym)
  • You have smth you want to do but really shouldn’t (listening to kpop/ TV)
  • Temptation bundliing
    
    • Only read/watch “guilty-pleasure” books/shows at the gym
    • Play music during class
    • Only listen to kpop when you exercise
    • Only snack when doing essay
  • Results: ppl go to gym more but it doesn’t last
    
    • Why: you have 2 tasks to SC
      
      • 1 you have to go to the gym
      • 2 you can only watch TV at the gym