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Learning theory Flashcards

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1
Q

Define what is meant by learning

A

• “a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behavior or capabilities.”

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2
Q

Outline the different basic learning processes

A

– Non-associative learning – response to repeated stimuli
– Classical conditioning – Learning what events signal
– Operant conditioning - Learning one thing leads to another
– Observational learning – Learning from others

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3
Q

Describe how learning can be overt or covert

A

§ Learning can be overt (i.e. behavioural) or covert (i.e. cognitive).
§ Learning theory is divided into 3 sections:
o Antecedents (cues) – environmental stimuli that exist before the behaviour of interest.
o Behaviours – behaviour (future behaviours may be influenced by both antecedents and consequences).
o Consequences – a stimulus change that follows a behaviour of interest

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4
Q

What is meant by habituation and sensitisation

A

Habituation is a decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.- e.g getting used to living on a busy road
• Sensitisation is an increase in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus. - moving to London and responding more to the sound to the tube door closing.
• Responses happen simultaneously and compete to determine behaviour

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5
Q

Describe the two different type of stimuli in classical conditioning

A

• Stimuli
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (the UCR) without prior learning
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): A stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR

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6
Q

Describe the two different types of response in classical conditioning

A 
Unconditioned response (UCR): A reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning
• Conditioned response (CR): A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. - learned response
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7
Q

When does conditioning occur and how do we know when it has occurred

A

Conditioning typically occurs over the course of many pairings, but it can happen in a single trial in certain cases
Get response purely elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

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8
Q

When is classical conditioning strongest

A

– There are repeated CS-UCS pairings
– The UCS is more intense (will require fewer pariings)
– The sequence involves forward pairing (i.e. CS -> UCS) – The time interval between the CS and UCS is short

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9
Q

Describe the acquisition and persistence phase of learning a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus

A

Acquisition: takes a few trials to learn
Persistence: continues while paired

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10
Q

Describe what is meant by extinction and spontaneous recovery

A

Extinction: A process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear
Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and without new learning trials

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11
Q

Describe the key features of spontaneous recoveries

A

§ There can however be “spontaneous recoveries” with the CS alone after periods of rest but the effect of these wanes with chronic use.
i.e the secondary recovery has a lower level of response than the primary recovery
these recoveries take less time to learn.

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12
Q

Define what is meant by stimulus generalisation

A

• A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical , to a conditioned stimulus.

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13
Q

Describe the key features of stimulus generalisation

A

Similar stimuli will also elicit the CR, but in a weaker form Eg, a 500Hz tone elicits the CR, tones of similar frequency will also elicit CR, the closer the tone to the original the stronger the response
Those with frequencies further away will induce a weaker response.

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14
Q

What is meant by stimulus discrimination

A

The ability to respond differently to various stimuli. – E.g. A child will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer) – A fear of dogs might only include certain breeds

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15
Q

Give an example of stimulus generalisation and discrimination

A

Stimulus generalisation: Stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR. For example, salivation may be elicited by a bell or a piano tone
Discrimination: A CR occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not others. For example, salivation may not be elicited by a whistle

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16
Q

Describe the Pavlov’s dog studies in classical conditioning

A

Pavlov’s Dogs – dogs would start salivating (UCR) when they were brought food (UCS). Then a bell was rung every time before the food was brought to them. Then they started salivating (CR) every time the bell was rung (CS).

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17
Q

Give a clinical example of classical conditioning

A

A significant proportion (25-30%) of patients undergoing chemotherapy experience anticipatory nausea and vomiting.
§ Patients undergoing chemotherapy experienced anticipatory nausea and vomiting – see below for links.
o Chemotherapy (UCS) à nausea (UCR).
o Sight of chemotherapy unit (CS) à Anticipatory nausea (CR

Also correlated with a reduction in immune response (NK cell activity) at the hospital compared to at home.

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18
Q

Describe the use of overshadowing to help overcome a CR to a CS

A

§ Overshadowing – when two or more CS are present but one provides a stronger response than the other as its more relevant – example below:
o Two groups of cancer patients, one given unpleasant, novel drink and the other given water.
o Patients with unpleasant drink showed reduced nausea to the original CS (sight of the chemotherapy unit)
§ CS had been altered.

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19
Q

What is meant by higher-order conditioning

A

Higher-order conditioning: Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS
Produces a CR that is weaker and extinguishes more rapidly than the original CR

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20
Q

Describe the ‘little albert’ experiment as classical conditioning and fear learning

A

Before conditioning:
Cat (neutral stimulus)
Loud noise (US)- Crying, attempting to crawl away (UR)

During conditioning- link he cat with the loud noise

After conditioning:
Rat (CS)- Crying, attempting to crawl away (CR)

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21
Q

Explain needle phobia

A 
§ Trauma (UCS) from a traumatic needle injection and the needle (CS) leads to a fear response (UCR). 
o Trauma (UCS) + needle (CS) à fear response (UCR

Clinical setting (CS) – fear response (CR)

22
Q

Describe the two factor theory of maintenance of classical conditioned associations e.g fear

A

§ Trauma (UCS) from a traumatic needle injection and the needle (CS) leads to a fear response (UCR).

o Trauma (UCS) + needle (CS) à fear response (UCR).

§ Avoiding injections à fear reduction à tendency to avoid is reinforced.

o Negative reinforcement.

23
Q

What is meant by throndike’s law of effect

A

A response followed by a satisfying
consequence will be more likely to
occur.
A response followed by an aversive consequence will become less likely to occur
Tendency to avoid: avoidance of CS leads to limited CR and hence reinforces avoidance

24
Q

Describe what is meant by preparedness

A

Preparedness: through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more easily than others

For example, phobias related to survival, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, are much more common

25
Q

What is meant by operant conditioning

A
  • Operant conditioning:

* Behaviour is learned and maintained by it’s consequences

26
Q

How does operation conditioning differ to classical conditioning

A

Classical: Behaviour changes are due to the association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR)

Focuses on elicited behaviours
Operant: Behaviour changes as the result of the consequences that follow it (reinforcement or punishment)

Focuses on emitted behaviours

27
Q

Describe what is meant by positive reinforcement

A

• Positive Reinforcement:occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a reinforcer

28
Q

Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers

A

– Primary Reinforcers: those needed for survival e.g. food, water, sleep, sex
– Secondary Reinforcers: stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers e.g. money, praise

29
Q

Describe what is meant by negative reinforcement

A

• Negative Reinforcement: occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus

30
Q

Describe the negative reinforcers

A

– Negative Reinforcer: the aversive stimulus that is removed or avoided (e.g. the use of painkillers are
reinforced by removing pain)

31
Q

What is important to remember about the terms ‘positive’ and ‘bad’ when it comes to reinforcement

A

• “Positive” and “Negative” refer to presentation or removal of a stimulus, not “good” and “bad”

32
Q

What are the two types of negative reinforcement

A

Escape removes a stimulus

Avoidance prevents a stimulus

33
Q

Describe what is meant by positive punishment

A

• Positive Punishment:
occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus (e.g. squirting a cat with water when it jumps on dining table)

34
Q

Describe what is meant by negative punishment

A

• Negative Punishment: occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus (e.g. phone confiscated)

35
Q

Describe the advantages of reinforcement over punishment for learning

A
  • Skinner maintained that reinforcement is a much more potent influence on behaviour than punishment
  • Largely because punishment can only make certain responses less frequent – you cant teach new behaviour
  • Implications for teaching and behaviour change?
36
Q

Describe some other terms used in operant conditioning

A

Aversive / Positive punishment: occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus
Negative punishment / Response cost: occurs when a response is weakened by the removal o a stimulus
Shaping (Method of successive approximations): involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a final response
Chaining: a technique used to develop a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response

37
Q

Describe the differences between continuous and partial positive reinforcement

A

• Continuous reinforcement produces more rapid learning than partial reinforcement
– The association between a behaviour and its consequences is easier to understand

• However, continuously reinforced responses extinguish more rapidly than partially reinforced responses
– The shift to no reinforcement is sudden and easier to understand

38
Q

Describe the different reinforcement schedules

A

Fixed interval schedule: reinforcement occurs after fixed time interval
Variable interval schedule: the time interval varies at random around an average Fixed Ratio Schedule: reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses
Variable Ratio Schedule: reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centered around an average

Variable- more resistance to extinction
shorter time intervals yield higher rates
higher ratios generate higher response rates

39
Q

Describe the different outcomes of fixed interval and variable interval reinforcement schedules

A

Fixed interval- activity increases near the deadline

Variable interval- activity stays high all the time

40
Q

Describe the different outcomes from fixed ratio and variable ratio reinforcement schedules

A

Fixed ratio- activity slows after reinforcement and then picks up
Variable ratio- greatest activity of all schedules results

41
Q

Describe the applications of operant conditioning in health behaviour

A
  • Chronic pain behaviour includes limping, grimacing, and medication requests.
  • This is often reinforced by family or staff e.g. by being overly sympathetic, encouraging rest, increasing medication
  • This behaviour is likewise reinforced by gratitude signals from the patient
  • A cycle is created in which the patient receives positive consequences for “being in pain“, so pain is more likely to occur in frequency
42
Q

What is Bandura’s theory regarding the cognitive approach to learning

A
  • Unlike Skinner, Bandura believes that humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences.
  • Social imitation may hasten or short-cut the acquisition of new behaviours without the necessity of reinforcing
43
Q

Describe what is meant by observational (vicarious) learning and vicarious reinforcement

A

 Observational (vicarious) learning - We observe the behaviours of others and the consequences of those behaviours.
 Vicarious reinforcement - If their behaviours are reinforced we tend to imitate the behaviours

44
Q

Describe the process of modelling or observational learning

A

Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person, or by noting consequences of a person’s actions
– Occurs before direct practice is allowed

45
Q

Outline the steps to successful modelling

A

– Pay attention to model
– Remember what was done
– Must be able to reproduce modeled behavior
– If successful or behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to recur

46
Q

Summarise what is meant by social learning theory

A

Cognitive theorists rejected behaviourism for not paying attention to the internal world of people as active meaning-maker. They argued people are not just passive agents to various environmental reinforcers but highlighted the role of introspection and innate capacity (e.g. for language development).

Albert Bandura framed social learning theory to include cognitive (or ‘personal’ in diagram below), environmental, and behaviour aspects that interact, or reciprocally determine, learning.

Inter-relationship between inane person, modelled behaviour and learning environment

47
Q

Describe the Bobo doll experiment which supports observational learning and social learning theory

A 
72 children (Mean aged 4yrs) recruited from Stanford University Nursery.
All children spent time in a playroom with an adult who modelled either non- aggressive (building tinker toy) or aggressive play (punching and striking the Bobo doll with mallet)
All children then spent a further 20 minutes in the room alone and their behaviour was observed. Aggressive behaviour both imitative and non- imitative was recorded.
Children who observed aggressive behaviour showed a much higher level of aggression towards the doll.
48
Q

When is social learning more likely to occur

A 
• We don’t imitate the behaviour of everyone we encounter
• More likely if model is:
– Seen to be rewarded
– High status (e.g. Medical consultant) 
– Similar to us (e.g. colleagues)
– Friendly (e.g. peers)
49
Q

What is operant extinction

A

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced

50
Q

How can we apply observational learning in a clinical setting

A

Expert by experience

liase patients in a group of patients who have had a positive response to a similar treatment.

Psychology (4 decks)

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