Learning Psychology Flashcards
Who proposed classical conditioning?
Pavlov
Explain classical conditioning
-2 stimuli repeatedly used together causing one to associate with another -unconditioned stimulus triggers unconditioned response -neutral stimuli paired with UCS = leads to CS -overtime = conditioned response
What is stimulus generalization?
responding to a stimuli which is similar to the CS -generalizing all stimuli together
What is spontaneous recovery?
a previously conditioned response that reoccurs after extinction
What is extinction?
UCS and CS not linked for a while -link becomes extinct
What were the UCS, UCR, NS, CS & CR in Pavlov’s study?
UCS: dog food UCR: salivation NS: bell ringing CS: NS paired with UCS CR: salivation when bell rings
What were the aims of Pavlov’s study?
explaining the role of conditioned reflexes in the eating behavior of dogs -explaining how salivation becomes associated with new stimuli
What was the procedure of Pavlov’s study?
-DV: saliva measured by volume in canula -soundproof chamber to minimize effects of EV’s -paired NS and UCS around 20 times -variations investigated extinction + spontaneous recovery
What were the findings of Pavlov’s study?
-NS didn’t initially elicit salivation response -after pairing, NS = salivation after a few seconds -one trial: salivation 9 secs after sound, 45 drops -only if dog alert + undistracted
What were the conclusions of Pavlov’s study?
link likely to be made in brain between UCS and NS -dog can learn to salivate at bell so it is prepared to eat food when presented
What was a strength of Pavlov’s study?
-some good experimental controls -reduced impact of EV’s = enhanced internal validity -soundproof chamber = reduce effect of external sounds -external collection of saliva = prevents loss of saliva -response to NS measured before pairing
What was an opposing argument of Pavlov’s study?
-can’t be generalized to humans (conducted on dogs) -humans have structurally different brains, may respond differently -greater complex cognitive processing HOWEVER -Little Albert study shows that classical conditioning also occurs in humans
What was an application of Pavlov’s study?
eating problems (e.g. obesity) -overweight children have acquired strong associations between cues that predict arrival of food, overeating follows exposure to these cues -significance in developing therapies such as systemic desensitization
What is operant conditioning?
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
Who studied operant conditioning?
B.F. Skinner
What is positive reinforcement?
addition of a pleasant stimulus
What is negative reinforcement?
removal of unpleasant stimulus
What is positive punishment?
addition of unpleasant stimulus
What is negative punishment?
removal of a pleasant stimulus
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?
PRIMARY: -biological significance (food, drink, shelter, sex) SECONDARY: -stimulus associated with primary (money - can buy food)
Evaluate a strength operant conditioning
many studies on both animals and humans -studies consistently show that behavior can be modified by reinforcement or punishment -modern brain studies support
Evaluate an opposing argument operant conditioning
-incomplete explanation of learning -only explains existing behavior, not where it originates -can’t account for behaviors never performed before
Evaluate an application operant conditioning
education and childcare -systems of reinforcement used in range of places -e.g. parents using star charts or food treats to reinforce good behavior
What is continuous reinforcement?
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
what is partial reinforcement?
reinforcing a response only part of the time -slower acquisition of a response but greater resistance to extinction
what are fixed-ratio schedules?
-schedule that reinforces response only after specific number of responses -E.g. every 5 pieces of homework, give child cookie
what are variable-ratio schedules?
schedule that reinforces response after unpredictable number of responses
what are fixed-interval schedules?
-only after specified time has elapses -e.g. giving child cookie after 2 hours of homework
what are variable-interval schedules?
unpredictable time intervals -e.g. pop quizzes
What are the 4 types of partial reinforcement?
fixed ratio -variable ratio -fixed interval -variable interval
Evaluate a strength of reinforcement schedules.
studies on both animals and humans -Latham + Dossett: mountain beaver trappers respond better to variable ratio pay -evidence supporting properties of partial reinforcement in both human + non-human animal learning
Evaluate an opposing argument of reinforcement schedules.
-fails to take account of intrinsic motivation (enjoyment/self-motivation) -humans motivated by range of factors -only considers extrinsic motivation (someone else giving the reward/punishment)
Evaluate an application of reinforcement schedules.
treating inappropriate behavior -behavior modification systems = treat range of mental health problems -practical benefit to clients
What does social learning theory say?
learning through observation and imitation -watching and copying other people (role model) -learning of social factors in the environment
Who studied social learning theory?
Bandura
what are the 4 stages of social learning theory?
1: attention (to model) 2: retention (remembering model’s behavior) 3: reproduction (having the skills for imitation) 4: motivation (e.g. reward)
what is vicarious reinforcement and punishment?
-consequences of other peoples’ actions -seeing someone else being rewarded/punished
What are the 3 stages of Bandura et al.’s bobo doll study (1961)?
1: child placed in room with doll and aggressive or non aggressive model 2: mild aggressive arousal 3: child taken to play room with toys (+bobo doll), observed for 20 mins
What were the aims of Bandura et al.’s study?
investigate effect of aggressive role models -investigate gender differences
What was the procedure of Bandura et al.’s study?
-matched pairs design -36 boys, 36 girls, ages 3-6 -aggression ratings determined beforehand -aggression and non-aggression groups -control group (no model present) -after, behavior categorized: imitative, partially imitative, non-imitative
What were the findings of Bandura et al.’s study?
-aggression group: completely/partially imitative -non-agression and control groups: 70% no aggression, less for other 30% -boys more likely if male model -boys more likely to be physical instead of verbal (compared to girls)
What were the conclusions of Bandura et al.’s study?
social behavior can be acquired by imitation of models -more likely when model is same gender
Evaluate a strength of Bandura et al.’s study
-clever experimental design -reduced impact of EV’s = enhanced internal validity -matched for aggression before -control group -one at time: controlled conformality effects
Evaluate a weakness of Bandura et al.’s study
-artificial environment -lacks external validity -can’t be generalized to outside the lab
Evaluate an application of Bandura et al.’s study
-learning aggressive behavior (especially boys) -adult role models (parents) -psychologists + social workers = better understanding of risks to children’s development by violent parents -important implications of policy around custody and parental contact
What were the 2 variations of Bandura’s study?
1: film-mediated aggressive models 2: influence of model’s reinforcement/punishment
How did the findings of the film-mediated aggressive models variation differ to the original results?
-all 3 groups (live, filmed realistic, cartoon) had increased aggression
How did the findings of the influence of model’s reinforcement variation differ to the original results?
model-punish =ed group significantly less aggression -introducing promise of reward increased aggression significantly for all groups
What is the difference between a fear and a phobia?
fear = sensible phobia = irrational and life limiting
What is the 2 process model of phobias?
explains both the acquisition and maintenance of phobias -acquired by classical conditioning -maintained by operant conditioning
Who proposed the 2 process model?
Mowrer (1960)
How could phobias be maintained by classical conditioning?
-association needs to be paired often unless strong enough first time -confirmed by Watson and Rayners’ study of Little Albert
How are phobias maintained by operant conditioning?
rewarded = will be repeated -punished = not repeated -reinforcement if phobia kept and punishment if faced
How are phobias maintained by social learning theory?
-Lieb et al. (2000) -children of parents with social phobia were more likely to have same phobia -someone else modelling phobia = learnt
What are strengths of using classical conditioning to explain how phobias?
can account for acquisition -Watson + Rayner experimented, others have replicated: found that you can be conditioned to fear something (using careful controls)
What are strengths of using operant conditioning to explain how phobias?
shown to maintain phobias -Skinner: shows that maintenance of behavior can be controlled through reinforcement and punishment
What are weaknesses of using classical conditioning to explain how phobias?
-animals rather than humans used: different brain structures -can’t generalize particularly with anxiety and fear (personal to each person) -experimentation relied on careful controls, limiting ecological validity of results
What are weaknesses of using operant conditioning to explain how phobias?
-phobias arise in real life taking into account environment, surroundings, etc… -all factors can’t be carefully controlled
What are the 2 types of treatment for phobias?
systematic desensitization -flooding
What are the stages of systematic desensitization?
1: FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS: careful questioning to discover nature of anxiety 2: CONSTRUCTING HIERARCHY: provoking situations from least to most fearful 3: RELAXING TRAINING: acts as desensitization, therapist teaches client to relax as deeply as possible 4: GRADUAL EXPOSURE: systematic component
Give 3 strengths of systematic desensitization.
-ethical (gradual, individuals fully involved) -studies show success -clients receiving SD for spider phobia compared with control group = SD group less fearful after 33 months
Give 3 weaknesses of systematic desensitization.
-not everyone can learn to relax -operant conditioning principles + cognitive processes impact (can’t be fully explained by classical conditioning) -SD may not always be appropriate (e.g. phobia linked to history of trauma)
What is flooding?
exposing patients to their phobic stimulus straight away -total immersion
Give 2 strengths of flooding.
cost effective and as effective as alternatives -clients free from symptoms sooner (quicker)
Give 2 weaknesses of flooding.
may not be effective for all phobias -ethical issues: unpleasant experience, traumatic
What was the aim of the classic study (Watson & Rayner: Little Albert)?
demonstrate that simple emotional responses such as fear can be acquired through a process of classical conditioning
What was the procedure of the classic study (Watson & Rayner: Little Albert)?
-healthy boy, 9 months old: Little Albert -baseline emotional responses to range of objects tested -4 sessions across 2 weeks -session 1: white rat presented, loud noise struck behind head when he reached to touch -session 2: exposed 5 times to CS, no fea
What were the findings of the classic study (Watson & Rayner: Little Albert)?
-at baseline testing = no fear but startled by noise -session 1: cried to noise -session 2: more cautious to rat, cry&crawl away -only reacted to white fury objects with fear (cried) -sessions 4 + 5: fear to white fury objects remained, less extreme in ot
Evaluate strengths of Watson and Rayners study.
good experimental controls = reduced impact of extraneous variables and enhanced internal validity -Little Albert carefully chosen (emotional stability) -well controlled room to prevent other stimuli -baseline responses checked
Evaluate an opposing argument of Watson and Rayners study.
some aspects not controlled -e.g. rabbit suddenly and dog pushed towards: may have triggered responses rather than animals themselves
Evaluate weaknesses of Watson and Rayners study.
-only uses 1 ppt = may not be representative of whole population -not certain of Albert’s identity so no way of knowing how representative of a child he was -results may be affected by ppt variables
Evaluate an application of Watson and Rayners study.
understanding acquisition of phobias -development of effective therapies -importance in shaping clinical practice
What was the contemporary study?
Becker et al. (2002) Eating behaviors following prolonged exposure to TV
What were the aims of Becker et al.’s study?
investigate social learning in context of eating behaviors -investigate impact of western attitudes on eating behaviors -see what effect ideas communicated through TV has on body satisfaction + eating disorders
What was the procedure of Becker et al.’s study?
-independent measures design -group of teenage girls questioned before TV’s introduced in Fiji, different group questioned 3 years later -standard questionnaire (EAT-26) and semi-structured interview (quantitative + qualitative) -height & weight also meas
What were the findings of Becker et al.’s study?
-similar weights in each group -41 % in 1995 and 71% in 1998 = TV at home -scores of dysfunctional eating = 30% in 1998, up by 13% since 1995
What were the conclusions of Becker et al.’s study?
women in western TV programs became role models = desire thinner bodies -rise in eating disorders + decline in body image
Evaluate strengths of Becker et al.’s study.
reliable measurements -studies show good reliability of eat-26 = good internal reliability -differences likely to be due to real changes over time
Evaluate an opposing argument of Becker et al.’s study.
-although reliability was good, issues with validity -e.g. EAT-26 scores didn’t predict eating disorders in sample of Brazilian women
Evaluate weaknesses of Becker et al.’s study.
-poor generalisibility -unrepresentative sample (only in Fiji) -Fiji traditionally have distinctive attitudes towards body types (high BMI = attractive)
Evaluate an application of Becker et al.’s study.
treating eating disorders -applied to TV programs + advertising -learnt through modelling so unlearned in same way
What is the key question?
Is the influence of role models something that causes anorexia nervosa?
What study did Pratt do?
-600 facebook users, aged 16-40 -over 50% said FB makes them more self-conscious
What points would be included in the introduction of the key question essay?
-estimated 1.6 mill people in UK = directly affected by eating disorders -mainly women aged 16-40 -male cases rising -signs + symptoms: low BMI, skipping meals, dizziness/lack of energy
How are Social Learning theory and Becker et al. included in the key question essay?
social learning Theory: people identify with popular characters, rewarded (e.g. insta likes) = more likely -Becker et al. supports: Fiji study, celebrity culture and role models = partly responsible for increased anorexia prevalence
How are pro-ana sites/social media included in the key question essay?
becoming more popular, natural pictures criticized -Pratt
How are operant conditioning and Holland et al. included in the key question essay?
likes = positive reinforcement -operant conditioning: reqarding someone = more likely to repeat but -Holland et al.: genetic factors involved, only small percentage exposed to celebrity culture = anorexic
Give a stat on suicide and anorexia that can be included in the key question essay?
-8% people with anorexia die within 5 years
Which solutions can be discussed in the key question essay?
social learning Theory solutions -regulation of media -telonovelas: using popular characters as role models effective in increasing contraception use (supporting evidence)
What points would be made in the conclusion of the key question essay?
-learning theories offer explanation for excessive weight loss -although may also be impacted by genetic factors, SLT’s suggest ways to reduce anorexia and save lives
