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Introduction to Psychology > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

What is learning?

A

A process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behaviour or capabilities.

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2
Q

What is habituation?

A

A decrease in the strength of a reflexive response to a repeated stimulus.

e.g. the boy who cried wolf. The town folk no longer responded to the boy to conserve energy.

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3
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

When an organism learns to associate a conditioned stimulus (previously neutral stimulus) with an unconditioned stimulus (which naturally evokes a reflexive response without prior learning) so that when exposed to the conditioned stimulus, a similar reflexive occurs because of a learned contingency between the two stimuli.

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4
Q

Who discovered classical conditioning?

A

The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the 1890’s

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5
Q

What are the 3 stages of classical conditioning?

A
  1. Acquisition - the gradual learning of the association between the CS and the UCS so that the CS provokes a reflexive response.
  2. Extinction - the gradual weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer presented with the UCS.
  3. Spontaneous Recovery - the re-emergence of the CR after successful extinction when the CS is encountered after a delay.
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6
Q

What are the 3 steps involved in classically conditioning an organism?

A
  1. CS ≠ UCR
    UCS = UCR
  2. CS + UCS = UCR
  3. CS = CR

In Pavlov’s dog experiment, the variables are as follows:
CS - the tone
UCS - the food
UCR - salivation with food
CR - salivation with only tone

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7
Q

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? Provide 1 example.

A

A stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response without prior learning.

Example = food

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8
Q

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)? Provide 1 example.

A

A reflexive response to a stimulus which requires no prior learning.

Example = salivation

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9
Q

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)? Provide 1 example.

A

A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (similar to the initial UCR) through association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Example = bell

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10
Q

What is a conditioned response (CR)? Provide 1 example.

A

A reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus.

Example = salivating to the sound of a bell without food present

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11
Q

What is acquisition?

A

Acquisition is the gradual learning of a conditioned response to the CS when the CS and UCS are paired together.

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12
Q

What is extinction?

A

When the intensity of the conditioned response slowly decreases when the conditioned stimulus is presented by itself without an unconditioned stimulus.

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13
Q

What is generalisation in classical conditioning? Provide 1 example.

A

Conditioned response can be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Example: a conditioned response could be evoked from stimuli such as a teddy a bear, or a guinea pig if the conditioned stimulus was a rat.

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14
Q

What is discrimination in classical conditioning? Provide 1 example.

A

The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another.

Example: an organism only has a conditioned response to a tone of 140hz and won’t respond to a tone of 200hz.

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15
Q

What are the 4 factors influencing classical conditioning?

A
  1. Timing
  2. Predictability
  3. Novelty
  4. Salience
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16
Q

How does timing influence the effectiveness of classical conditioning?

A

It works best when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

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17
Q

How does predictability influence the effectiveness of classical conditioning?

A

It is best when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is notably indicative of when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) will occur; they can predict the UCS is coming when they sense the CS.

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18
Q

How does novelty influence the effectiveness of classical conditioning?

A

It is most effective when the conditioned stimulus is unusual for the setting.

E.g. the rustling of leaves in a forest would be a bad choice for a conditioned stimulus

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19
Q

How does salience influence the effectiveness of classical conditioning?

A

It is most effective when the conditioned stimulus is noticeable but not too overwhelming.

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20
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it.

e.g., learning from your own mistakes

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21
Q

What is reinforcement in operant conditioning? Provide 1 example.

A

A behavioural response is strengthened by an event that follows it.

E.g. press a button and get a dollar. Now you won’t stop pressing the button.

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22
Q

What is punishment in operant conditioning? Provide 1 example.

A

A behavioural response is weakened by outcomes that follow it.

E.g. eat a raw egg and get sick. Won’t do that again.

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23
Q

What do strengthened and weakened responses mean in the context of operational conditioning?

A

Strengthened response - increase in frequency of response (pressing a button more than before)

Weakened response - decrease in frequency of response (pressing a button less than before)

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24
Q

What is a reinforcer? (Operational conditioning)

A

An event or stimulus that strengthens (increases frequency of) a response.

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25
Q

What is a punisher? (Operational conditioning)

A

An event or stimulus that weakens (decreases frequency of) a response.

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26
Q

What is contingency? (Operational conditioning)

A

The relationship between the behaviour and the consequence; the consequence only occurs because of the behaviour.

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27
Q

How does operational conditioning help with learning and adaptation?

A

An organism learns to avoid behaviours that lead to negative consequences, and to pursue behaviours that lead to positive outcomes.

E.g. not eating poisonous foods

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28
Q

What is observational learning?

A

The learning that occurs by observing the behaviour of a model.

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29
Q

What is modelling? (observational learning)

A

When an organisms learns through observing.

30
Q

How does observational learning help ensure an organisms survival?

A

The organism can learn through observing others or their environment without having to experience potentially dangerous events themselves.

i.e. learning to fear dangerous animals rather than learning that the hard way

31
Q

What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?

A

The law states that in a given situation, a response followed by a satisfying consequence will become more likely to occur and a response followed by an annoying consequence will become less likely to occur.

In other words, organisms instinctively do what pleases them.

32
Q

What is a reinforcer?

A

A consequence that increases the probability of a behaviour recurring.

33
Q

What is a punisher?

A

A consequence that decreases the probability of a behaviour recurring.

34
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

When an organism’s behaviour is shaped by it’s consequences.

35
Q

What is another name for operant conditioning?

A

Instrumental conditioning

36
Q

What did Edward Thorndike do?

A

Studied intelligence in cats using a puzzle box.

Came up with the Law of Effect theory

37
Q

Who provided the definitions of punishment and reinforcement?

A

B.F. Skinner

38
Q

What is operant behaviour?

A

A “class” of behaviours that are all from the same category.

They’re not always the same behaviour.

E.g. Studying behaviour = behaviours that surround studying like reading and writing

39
Q

What does it mean to strengthen or weaken a behaviour?

A

Strengthen = increase frequency of behaviour

Weaken = decrease frequency of behaviour

40
Q

What are operant consequences?

A

The events/outcomes that influence the probability of a behaviour recurring.

They either increase or decrease the probability of a behaviour being performed again.

41
Q

If a behaviour’s probability increases due to something being added to the situation, what process has occurred? Provide an example.

A

Positive Reinforcement

Example:
Do a shift -> get paid -> work more shifts

42
Q

If a behaviour’s probability increases due to something being taken away from the situation, what process has occurred? Provide an example.

A

Negative Reinforcement

Example:
Open umbrella -> escape from the rain open -> umbrellas more often

43
Q

If a behaviour’s probability decreases due to something being added to the situation, what process has occurred? Provide an example.

A

Positive Punishment

Example:
Swat at wasp -> get stung -> swat at wasps less

44
Q

If a behaviour’s probability increases due to something being taken away from the situation, what process has occurred? Provide an example.

A

Negative Punishment

Example:
Commit crime -> go to jai -> commit less crime

45
Q

What is acquisition in operant conditioning?

A

Acquisition is the gradual strengthening of the frequency of an operant behaviour when it is followed by the consequence.

46
Q

What is extinction in operant conditioning?

A

Extinction is the gradual weakening of the frequency of the operant response when it is no longer followed by the consequence.

47
Q

What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?

A

Spontaneous recovery is the re-emergence of a previously extinguished response after a delay.

48
Q

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

A

Shaping is used to reinforce a behaviour that is infrequent or does not occur at all.

The shaping involves reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour.

49
Q

What is an example of shaping?

A

A student trying to learn a musical piece, the instructor provides positive reinforcement in stages to shape the students playing:

  1. They’re first complimented by just trying to play
  2. Only complimented when the piece resembles the song
  3. Only complimented when they play the piece entirely.

The student wants positive affirmations so they strive to reach the new goals set by the instructor.

50
Q

What are primary reinforcers?

A

Things we find naturally or innately reinforcing and requires no training to be effective as a reinforcer.

E.g., food, water, sex

51
Q

What are secondary reinforcers?

A

Things that have become reinforcing because they have been associated with a primary reinforcer - requires training to be an effective reinforcer.

E.g., money, good grades

52
Q

What is generalisation in operant conditioning?

A

When an organism performs the same behaviour(s) in new similar situations.

E.g., talking respectfully to your new boss

53
Q

What is discrimination in operant conditioning?

A

Occurs when we perform a behaviour in some circumstances and not others.

E.g., traffic lights are always on but we only go on green, not red.

54
Q

What are the 2 factors affecting operant conditioning?

A
  1. Timing
  2. Magnitude of punisher/reinforcer
55
Q

Describe the effect of timing in operant conditioning.

A

Consequence should follow the behaviour immediately

If there is a delay another behaviour can be accidentally punished/reinforced.

56
Q

Describe the effect of the magnitude of a punisher/reinforcer in operant conditioning.

A

In general, bigger rewards/punishers have more powerful impacts on behaviour.

57
Q

What are the 2 general types of scheduled reinforcement in operant conditioning?

A
  1. Continuous reinforcement
  2. Partial reinforcement
58
Q

What does continuous reinforcement mean?

A

The behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs.

E.g., rat gets a treat every time it presses a button

59
Q

What does partial reinforcement mean?

A

Only some responses are reinforced.

E.g., rat gets a treat every third time it presses a button

60
Q

What are the two broad types of scheduling?

A
  1. Ratio schedules
  2. Interval schedules
61
Q

What are the 2 types of ratio scheduling?

A
  1. Fixed ratio scheduling
  2. Variable ratio scheduling
62
Q

Describe fixed ratio scheduling.

A

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses that is always the same (i.e., every nth response).

63
Q

Describe variable ratio scheduling.

A

Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses (but centres around an average).

64
Q

What are the 2 types of interval scheduling?

A
  1. Fixed interval scheduling
  2. Variable interval scheduling
65
Q

Describe fixed interval scheduling.

A

Reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a fixed time period (that is always the same).

66
Q

Describe variable interval scheduling.

A

Reinforcement occurs after the first response made after a variable time period has passed (the exact amount of time differs but centres around an average).

67
Q

What are 3 applications for operant conditioning?

A
  1. Animal training
  2. Behaviour management and parenting programs
  3. Prevalent in clinical disorders such as OCD and treatment of clinical disorders
68
Q

What type of conditioning is occurring if a response is influenced before the behaviour occurs?

A

Classical conditioning

69
Q

What type of conditioning is occurring if a response is influenced after the behaviour occurs?

A

Operant conditioning

70
Q

What type of conditioning is occurring if the outcome is not determined by the behaviour?

A

Classical conditioning

71
Q

What type of conditioning is occurring if the outcome is determined by the behaviour?

A

Operant conditioning

Introduction to Psychology (6 decks)

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