Learning & Memory Flashcards
Why should we study learning in medicine?
We need to understand how learning may contribute to psychological/psychiatric illnesses. If we understand how behaviour is learned, we may be able, as doctors, to change it towards healthier behaviours
What are the two main types of associative learning?
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
The stimulus in the reflex that automatically elicits an unconditioned response.
E.g. every time the dog is presented with food it salivates.
What are key terms in classical (Pavlovian) conditioning?
- Unconditioned stimulus
- Unconditioned Response
- Conditioned Stimulus
- Neutral Stimulus
Explain classical conditioning.
If, to the naturally occurring reflex, the experimenter adds a neutral element (e.g. sound of a bell), eventually when the food is presented, the dog will begin salivating after hearing the sound of the bell, even in absence of food. Therefore, conditioning can be described as complete once the neutral stimulus has become fully associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Once conditioning is complete, the neutral stimulus is referred to as the conditioned stimulus. E.g. the previous neutral stimulus of the bell elicits a new response of salivation which is now called the conditioned response.
Describe the dog and bell example in classical conditioning.
- Unconditioned stimulus (food) and unconditioned response (salivation).
- By associating the neutral stimulus (ring of bell) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), you get a systematic association between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
- This leads to the neutral stimulus (ring of bell) becoming the conditioned stimulus which then triggers the conditioned response (salivation).
What is classical conditioning often associated with?
It is often associated with learning experiences of fear or pain. E.g. when you hear the dental drill in the waiting room, you may experience fear. There is scientific literature that states classical conditioning mechanisms can amplify the experience of pain.
Describe the Little Albert study (Watson & Raynor, 1920).
The most famous example of classical conditioning was the Little Albert study. This was a fear conditioning study on a 9-month-old infant who was frightened of loud noises (unconditioned response). Watson paired the sight of a white rat (neutral stimulus) with an unexpected loud noise (UCR) until the sight of the white rat alone (CS) triggered the fear avoidance response in Little Albert. It took only 7 pairings for Albert to learn to fear the rat.
Describe Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning (Skinner, 1938).
Operant conditioning is where subjects learn to associate their own behaviours with consequences. Behaviours that result in satisfying consequences will be strengthened, whereas behaviours that are punished will be weakened. Skinner conducted experiments on animals to explore operant conditioning.
What is the significance of alcoholism in learning theories?
Alcoholism and substance misuse are examples of learned behaviours that are considered pathological. Consider how classical conditioning and operant conditioning contribute to alcohol misuse/dependence and how techniques based on these principles could be used in treatment.
What is learning without association?
Learning without association is known as Social (Observational) Learning, where we continuously learn by observing others’ behaviours.
Describe the social learning experiment: Bandura’s ‘Bobo doll’ experiments.
This experiment involved children observing adults who beat, kicked, and yelled at a Bobo doll. After observing these behaviours, the child was taken to a room with appealing toys but was upset by the experimenter. The child then started beating the Bobo doll just as the adults had.
What is social learning?
Social learning is learning by watching other people’s behaviour and its consequences.
What is the impact of doctors in social learning?
Doctors are powerful models.
What is the importance of social learning in medicine?
Some behaviours are difficult to learn without observation (e.g. clinical skills). There is research about whether exposure to violence in media leads to aggression, with evidence suggesting it can contribute to aggressive behaviours in individuals at risk.
What are mirror neurons the basis of?
Mirror neurons may provide a neural basis for social learning, firing both when a subject performs an action and when observing another person performing the same action.
What is the link between learning and memory?
Memory and learning are inextricably linked: the ability to learn depends on the ability to remember, and the ability to remember depends on prior learning.
What are the three stages of memory?
- Encoding: The process of transferring information to one memory stage to the next.
- Storage: Maintaining information in a particular stage.
- Retrieval: The process of bringing information stored in long-term memory to the conscious level.
Describe the simple model of memory.
Information enters from the physical environment through our 5 senses into sensory memory. From here, it flows to short-term memory and then to long-term memory where it is ready to be retrieved.
What are the characteristics of short-term memory (STM)?
- Limited capacity: Average is 7±2 chunks of information.
- Short duration: Information is retained for less than 30 seconds.
- Maintenance via rehearsal: Repeating information can maintain it for longer than 30 seconds.
What are the characteristics of long-term memory (LTM)?
- Unlimited capacity.
- Variable duration: Information can be forgotten.
- Forgetting can be due to encoding failure, interference, or decay.
Describe Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve for LTM.
Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve shows that after 2 days, little more forgetting occurs.
What are the different types of long-term memory (LTM) and their differences?
- Declarative memory: Requires conscious recall (subdivided into episodic and semantic memory).
- Procedural memory: Does not require conscious recall.
What is the significance of memory in medical consultations?
Patients remember considerably lower amounts of information than expected, often recalling only 50% of what is said in consultations.
What are examples of causes of memory impairment?
- Diffuse brain disease (e.g. dementias).
- Focal brain disease (e.g. amnesias).
- Physiological disturbance (e.g. delirium).
- Psychiatric illness (e.g. schizophrenia, depression, anxiety).
What is amnesia?
Amnesic patients present with memory impairments due to focal brain lesions. Classification depends on the relationship with the moment of brain damage: retrograde amnesia (loss of memories before damage) and anterograde amnesia (loss of ability to form new memories after damage).
What is retrograde amnesia?
The ability to retrieve memories from events that happened prior to brain damage.
What is anterograde amnesia?
Patients with anterograde amnesia preserve the ability to retrieve memories before brain damage but lose the ability to remember new memories after brain damage.
Which brain structures play a role in memory?
Structures in the pre-frontal cortex and the temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and the amygdala.
What is the role of the amygdala in memory?
The amygdala belongs to the limbic system, which is important for processing emotion and the emotional salience of memories.
Why are emotionally salient memories easier to store?
It is easier to store emotionally salient memories in long-term memory (LTM) due to the involvement of the limbic system.
What subcortical structures are involved in implicit memory?
The basal ganglia and the cerebellum are involved in implicit memory.
Who is patient HM?
The most famous amnesic patient, who died at 82 after undergoing brain surgery in 1953 for refractory epilepsy.
What was the outcome of patient HM’s surgery?
The surgery involved removal of the mesial temporal lobe bilaterally, leading to anterograde amnesia and intact memories up to the day of the surgery.
What were the symptoms of patient HM’s condition?
His doctor had to reintroduce himself every time they met due to his inability to form new memories after the surgery.
What are the symptoms of anterograde amnesia?
Sufferers experience difficulty forming new explicit long-term memories, learning new information, and may be disoriented and confused.
How does anterograde amnesia affect personality and intelligence?
Personality, intelligence, and judgment may be unaffected, while memory for the past up to the time of brain injury is generally good.
What challenges do sufferers of anterograde amnesia face?
They may have trouble holding a job due to their memory difficulties.
