learning approach

Question 1

what are the studies under the learning approach?

Answer 1

bandura, saavedra, pepperberg

Question 2

main assumptions of the learning approach?

Answer 2

• conditioning helps to explain changes in behaviour

* social learning helps to explain changes in behaviour.

Question 3

aims of bandura

Answer 3

 The aim was to investigate whether a child would learn aggression by observing a model and would reproduce this behaviour in the absence of the model
 whether the sex of the role model was important.

Question 4

what is imitative (social) learning

Answer 4

the learning of a new behaviour which is observed in a role model and imitated later in the absence of that model

Question 5

what were the 4 hypotheses in bandura

Answer 5

• Observed aggressive behaviour will be imitated, so children seeing aggressive models will be more aggressive than those seeing a non-aggressive model or no model.
• Observed non-aggressive behaviour will be imitated, so children seeing non-aggressive models will be less aggressive than those seeing no model.
• Children are more likely to copy a same-sex model.
• Boys will be more likely to copy aggression than girls

Question 6

experimental design of bandura

Answer 6

independent measures as different children were used in each of the levels of the independent variables (IVs) (although these children were matched for aggression in threes).

Question 7

what type of experiment was bandura et al

Answer 7

lab; the environment was not the normal place where the children played and the situation was controlled.

Question 8

what were the 3 IVs in bandura and describe each of them

Answer 8

model type: whether the child saw an aggressive model, non-aggressive model or no model
model gender: same gender as child (boys watching a male model and girls watching a female model) or different gender (boys watching a female model and girls watching a male model)
learner gender: whether the child was a boy or a girl.

Question 9

DV of bandura

Answer 9

was the learning the child displayed

Question 10

how was the DV measured in bandura

Answer 10

This was measured through a controlled observation of the children and measures of aggressive behaviour were recorded.

Question 11

sample of bandura

Answer 11

Seventy-two children (36 boys and 36 girls)
aged three to six years
were obtained from Stanford University nursery school.

Question 12

which uni were the children from in the bandura study

Answer 12

stanford

Question 13

in bandura, there were three ‘response measures’ of the children’s imitation, with a range of possible activities in each, what were these

Answer 13

• Imitation of physical aggression: striking the Bobo doll with the mallet, sitting on the doll and punching it in the nose, kicking the doll, and tossing it in the air.
• Imitative verbal aggression: repetition of the phrases, ‘Sock him’, ‘Hit him down’, ‘Kick him’, ‘Throw him in the air’ or ‘Pow’.
• Imitative non-aggressive verbal responses: repetition of ‘He keeps coming back for more’ or ‘He sure is a tough fella’.

Question 14

results for bandura

Answer 14

• Children exposed to aggressive models imitated their exact behaviours and were significantly more aggressive, both physically and verbally, than those children in the non- aggressive model or control groups.
• mean for imitative physical aggression for male subjects (25.8) is much higher than that for female subjects (7.2).
• Children seeing a non-aggressive model were much less likely than either the aggressive model group or controls to exhibit mallet aggression, and this pattern was especially apparent for girls.

Question 15

conclusions for bandura

Answer 15

• Observed aggressive behaviours are imitated: children who see aggressive models are likely to be more aggressive than those seeing a non-aggressive model or no model.
• Observed non-aggressive behaviours are imitated: children seeing non-aggressive models will be less aggressive than those seeing no model.
• Children are more likely to copy a same-sex model, although this may depend on the extent to which this behaviour is sex-typed.
• Boys are more likely to copy aggression than girls.

Question 16

what does phobia mean

Answer 16

the irrational, persistent fear of an object or event which poses little real danger but creates anxiety and avoidance in the sufferer

Question 17

evaluative learning

Answer 17

a form of classical conditioning where an individual to is lead to perceive or evaluate a previously neutral stimulus negatively due to it being the product of complex thought processes and emotions

Question 18

aim of saavedra and silverman

Answer 18

 The aim was to examine the role of classical conditioning in relation to fear and avoidance of a particular stimulus.
 In the context of a specific phobia, researchers wanted to see if using a type of exposure therapy could reduce the disgust and distress associated with buttons.

Question 19

research method and design of saavedra and silverman

Answer 19

• clinical case study as it involved just one participant whose life history and treatment was studied in depth.

Question 20

which study was the feelings thermometer included in and how was it used

Answer 20

in saavedra and silverman; results of the treatment were measured using a nine-point scale of disgust known as the ‘Feelings Thermometer’.

Question 21

how was the data collected in saavedra and silverman

Answer 21

using self report measures

Question 22

describe the sample of saa and silv

Answer 22

 9-year-old Hispanic American boy, along with his mother.
 he had sought support from the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at Florida International University, Miami.
 He met the criteria for having a specific phobia of buttons
 had been experiencing symptoms for around four years prior to the start of the study.

Question 23

when and how did the phobia begin for the pp in saa and silv

Answer 23

The phobia had begun at age five, 
when the boy had knocked over a bowl of buttons in front of his class and teacher.

Question 24

what was rated an 8 (the worst) in saa and silv for the pp on the feelings thermometer

Answer 24

small plastic buttons

clear and coloured

Question 25

what was rated the least distressing on the feelings thermo in saa and silv

Answer 25

large denim buttons

Question 26

what were the two treatments given to the pp in saav and silv

Answer 26

• contingency management

- imagery exposure

Question 27

describe the contingency management treatment in saav and silv

Answer 27

 a form of positive reinforcement therapy.
 This was a behaviour- focused approach which meant the boy was rewarded for showing less fear and for actually handling the buttons.
 The positive reinforcement was given to the boy by his mother only after he had completed a gradual exposure to buttons.
 These treatment sessions lasted between 20 and 30 minutes.

Question 28

how long were the sessions in the contingency management treatment in saav and silv

Answer 28

20-30 min

Question 29

describe the imagery exposure treatment in saav and silv

Answer 29

• imagery exposure therapy uses visualisation techniques.
   Disgust-related imagery exposures were incorporated with cognitive self-control strategies.
   The boy was asked to imagine buttons falling on him, and to consider how they looked, felt and smelled. He was also asked to talk about how these imagery exposures made him feel.
   The exposures progressed from images of larger to smaller buttons, in line with the boy’s fear hierarchy.

Question 30

describe the results in the Positive reinforcement therapy (contingency management) treatment in saav and silv

Answer 30

• successful in completing of all the exposure tasks listed in the hierarchy of fear.
   The boy was also observed approaching the buttons more positively. One example of this was that he started handling larger numbers of buttons during later sessions.
   However, his subjective ratings of distress increased significantly between sessions two and three, and continued to rise
   By session four, a number of items on the hierarchy such as hugging his mother while wearing buttons had increased in dislike from the original scores.
• So despite his behaviour towards the fearful stimuli improving, his feelings of disgust, fear and anxiety actually increased as a result of the positive reinforcement therapy.

Question 31

describe how there was a downfall in the contingency management treatment in saav and silv

Answer 31

• his subjective ratings of distress increased significantly between sessions two and three, and continued to rise
   By session four, a number of items on the hierarchy such as hugging his mother while wearing buttons had increased in dislike from the original scores.
• So despite his behaviour towards the fearful stimuli improving, his feelings of disgust, fear and anxiety actually increased as a result of the positive reinforcement therapy.

Question 32

what can be concluded from the contingency management treatment

Answer 32

that despite his behaviour towards the fearful stimuli improving, his feelings of disgust, fear and anxiety actually increased as a result of the positive reinforcement therapy.

Question 33

describe the results in the imagery exposure treatment in saav and silv

Answer 33

• appeared to be successful in reducing the boy’s rating of distress
• Prior to imagery therapy, the boy rated the exp of 100s of buttons falling on him as the most fearful and disgusting (score of 8 on the Feelings Thermometer).
• This reduced to 5 midway through the exposure, and just 3 after the exposure was complete.

Question 34

after how long were follows up conducted on the pp in saav and silv

Answer 34

6 and 12 month follow ups

Question 35

how was the pp in the follow ups in saav and silv

Answer 35

 the boy reported feeling minimal distress about buttons.
 He also no longer met the diagnostic criteria for a specific phobia of buttons.
 His feelings towards buttons no longer affected his normal functioning; he was also able to wear small, clear plastic buttons on his school uniform on a daily basis

Question 36

conclusions from the saav and silv

Answer 36

• emotions and cognitions relating to disgust are important when learning new responses to phobic stimuli
• imagery exposure can have a long-term effect on reducing the distress associated with specific phobias as it tackles negative evaluations.

Question 37

what was the aim of the pepperberg study

Answer 37

The aim of this study was to see whether a parrot could use vocal labels to demonstrate a symbolic understanding of the concepts ‘same’ and ‘different’.

Question 38

what was the research method and design of the pepp study

Answer 38

This was an animal case study involving one subject who was trained and tested over a couple of years.

Question 39

describe the pp in the pepp study

Answer 39

This study focused on one African Grey parrot called Alex. Alex had been involved in prior research on communication and cognition for around ten years. During the day, the parrot had free access to all areas of the laboratory and at night he was confined to a wire cage. He was fed a diet suitable for his species and given toys to play with.

Question 40

what type of parrot was the pp in pepp

Answer 40

african grey parrot - alex

Question 41

how long did each training session last in the pepp study

Answer 41

5 min to 1 hour

Question 42

how many training sessions were there per week in pepp

Answer 42

2 - 4 times a week

Question 43

what concept is used in the procedure in pepp

Answer 43

it is based on the concept of modelling demonstrated in the first study in this chapter by Bandura et al. (1961).

Question 44

describe the modelling concept in the pepp procedure

Answer 44

One human acts as the trainer of the second human by presenting the second with objects, then asking questions about the objects and offering reward or praise to desirable responses.
Thus, the second or learner human acts as a model to the parrot who is watching the interaction

Question 45

how were the materials paired for the task in pepp

Answer 45

-The materials were paired from a selection given to a student who had nothing to do with the study, in order to create an unbiased set of stimuli.

Question 46

describe one trial in the pepp study

Answer 46

• Alex was presented with two objects that could differ in one of three categories: shape, colour or material. For example, the group might include a blue wooden triangle and a blue wooden square.
• In some trials, Alex was asked by the trainer: ‘what’s the same?’ and ‘what’s different?’ The correct response would be for Alex to name the categories that were the same (in this example colour and material), and those which were different (shape).

Question 47

what was the % of trials alex correctly responded to involving familiar objects (this was for first trials answered correctly and those that involved correction procedures) in pepp study

Answer 47

76.6%

Question 48

how many for first trials only, Alex answered correctly in pepp

Answer 48

69.7

Question 49

why in the pepp tasks were there novel objects included

Answer 49

involved novel objects which measured the extent to which Alex could generalise his understanding and communication around the concepts of ‘same’ and ‘different’ to entirely new situations.

Question 50

results for alex in pepp study for novel objects

Answer 50

Here Alex actually performed slightly better on the task, scoring 96/113 on all trials (85%), and 79/96 (82.3%) on first-trial performance only.

Question 51

reasoning as to why alex may have scored better for novel objects than familiar objects in the pepp study?

Answer 51

While we might expect Alex to have found it more difficult to judge items which he had never encountered before, he was actually more accurate at doing so. One reason the researchers suggest for this difference is that Alex received the items involved in each trial as his reward. As such, he might have been motivated to do better on novel trials because he was curious to investigate newer reward items.

Question 52

conclusions from the pepp study

Answer 52

• parrots have the potential to demonstrate comprehension of the symbolic concepts ‘same’ and ‘different’
• they may also learn to respond to verbal questions to vocalise categorical labels.

Question 53

in bandura, why did the researchers deliberately annoy the children before the experiment started?

Answer 53

done for two reasons:
•because watching aggression may reduce the production of aggression by the observer (even if it has been learned) and it was necessary to see evidence of learning
•to ensure that even the non-aggressive condition and control participants would be likely to express aggression, so that any reduction in that tendency could be measured.

Question 54

what was in the observation room in bandura?

Answer 54

The opposite corner of the room also contained
a table and chair, a Tinkertoy set, a mallet and a five foot (152 cm) Bobo doll – an inflatable clown- like doll which bounced back when hit.
This is where the model sat, in those conditions where there was one.

Question 55

describe the procedure in the non aggressive condition in bandura

Answer 55

In the non- aggressive condition, the model assembled the Tinkertoys (a wooden building kit) for ten minutes.

Question 56

describe the procedure in the aggressive condition in bandura

Answer 56

this lasted only one minute (model playing with tinkertoy set) after which the model attacked the Bobo doll. The doll was laid on its side, sat on and punched in the nose, picked up and hit on the head with a mallet, tossed up in the air and kicked.
This sequence was performed three times over nine minutes accompanied by
aggressive comments such as ‘Kick him’ and two non-aggressive comments such as ‘He sure is a tough fella’. Of children in the model groups, half saw a same-sex model, the others saw a model of the opposite sex.

Question 57

what were the partially imitative behavioural categories in bandura

Answer 57

The two behaviours here were:
•mallet aggression: striking objects other than the Bobo doll aggressively with the mallet
•sits on Bobo doll: laying the Bobo doll on its side and sitting on it, without attacking it.

Two further categories were:
aggressive gun play: shooting darts or aiming a gun and firing imaginary shots at objects in the room.
non-imitative physical and verbal aggression: physically aggressive acts directed toward objects other than the Bobo doll and any hostile remarks except for those in the verbal imitation category (e.g. ‘Shoot the Bobo’, ‘Cut him’, ‘Stupid ball’, ‘Horses fighting, biting’ ‘Knock overpeople’.

Question 58

strengths on bandura

Answer 58

The main method was a laboratory experiment. This means that it was possible to control extraneous variables such as ensuring there was a possibility that the children in any condition would show aggressive behaviour.
- This was done by showing them nice toys but then taking them to another room.
- Also, all children in both experimental groups saw a model for the same length of time, and in each condition their behaviours were standardised. This means the research was more valid – the researchers could be sure that the differences in results between conditions were due to the differences between the models – and more reliable, because each child within a condition experienced exactly the same exposure.
Inter-observer reliability was also checked for both the initial observations of aggressiveness and for the data recording – and was very high. The pre- testing of the children’s aggressiveness was another factor that increased validity, because it ensured that differences between conditions were due to the models and not to individual differences between the children who happened to be in each group.
The main measure of the DV was through observation. As the observers were behind a one-way mirror, the children were unaware that they were being watched. This increases validity as they were likely to behave naturally rather than responding to demand characteristics as they might have done had they known they were being observed.

Question 59

weaknesses of bandura

Answer 59

that only six children were used in each experimental condition and, although they were matched to reduce the risk of participant variables confounding the results, it is still a small sample.
Furthermore, it is possible that the children were quite similar, as they all attended the same nursery based at a university, suggesting that they all had academically able parents. This could bias the sample, lowering validity.
raises ethical issues with the study as some of the children might have been harmed by becoming more aggressive. Even if this were not the case, the children had been mildly annoyed, which could be psychologically distressing.

Question 60

what were the ages of the children in bandura

Answer 60

3-6 yrs

Question 61

what were the children matched based on in bandura

Answer 61

physical, verbal aggression, aggression towards inanimate objects and aggression inhibition (anxiety)

Question 62

strengths of pepp study

Answer 62

There were attempts to maintain the validity of the research; for example, the question order and materials were selected by a student with no connection to the project.
Similarly, the trainer conducting the trials had not trained Alex on the same/different task. Both of these controls meant that researcher bias was limited.
It also meant Alex did not respond to any demand characteristics from interacting with his usual trainer.

The research involved collecting quantitative data in the form of correct responses to the same/different questions. This allows us to make an objective analysis of whether or not Alex was able to understand the abstract concepts. Usefully, it also enabled comparison of two different sorts of tests, one involving familiar objects and one involving novel objects, so researchers could establish whether the rules of same/different had been generalised beyond training materials.

When using animals as participants, different sorts of ethical issues must be considered. In this instance, Alex is reported to be well treated and does not appear to have been physically harmed as a result of the research. There is no suggestion he was underfed or understimulated in order to encourage his participation in training. For example, Alex’s conditions are described in a way that suggested he had adequate space to explore the laboratory for a considerable part of the day, and was given toys and interactions to prevent boredom.

Question 63

weaknesses of pepp study

Answer 63

This study involved one male African Grey parrot, making it a case study. Like the previous piece of research on phobias, this method makes it difficult to generalise from. As the parrot was a trained laboratory animal, it would be hard to say that it is representative of the general population.

However, the researchers acknowledge that the species of parrot involved in the study is fairly intelligent, and being kept in an artificial environment for such an extended period of time while participating in non-naturalistic behaviours could be considered unethical.

The researchers mention that Alex suffered from boredom at times, hence they varied his training and testing schedules in order to control for repetitive behaviours that were unrelated to the leaning process. This species is intelligent and prone to self-injurious behaviour in captivity as a result of boredom; a major challenge for those conducting research with them.

Question 64

Describe the psychology that is being investigated in the study by Laneyet al. (false memory).

Answer 64

People may have memories for events, etc. that never actually happened;
People can reconstruct memories of events that have real and false memories in
them;
These could alter our perception of childhood memories (or any memory);
People can fill in the gaps using false information;
They can be either negative (a crime) or positive (liking asparagus);

Question 65

state the before and after of the reading the mind in the eyes test

Answer 65

25 pairs of eyes —-> 36 pairs

2 response options —–> 4 options (irritated, aghast, reflective, impatient0

Question 66

Explain one real world application of the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test.

Answer 66

The Eyes Test can be used to help diagnose autism. If a child/adult scores low on the Test it might indicate a lack of Theory of Mind so that person can receive help (2 marks)

Question 67

Describe the assumptions of the biological approach.

Answer 67

• behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and the effect of hormones
• similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interaction with other factors.
• behaviour can be explained via the brain, for example the hippocampus is
involved in memory

Question 68

In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), a principal trainer and secondary trainers were used during the ‘test procedures’.
Describe what the principal trainer would do during the ‘test procedures’

Answer 68

She was sat in the room with her back to Alex/the parrot;
She did not look at Alex/the parrot during the presentation of (test) objects;
She did not know what object was being presented;
She repeated out loud what Alex/the parrot said;
It was then decided if the response was correct/incorrect/indistinct

Question 69

Outline how the overall test score was calculated in pepperberg.

Answer 69

Dividing the total number of correct identifications (1 mark) by the total number of presentations required (1 mark).

Question 70

Describe the psychology being investigated in the study by Pepperberg that used Alex the parrot as a participant.

Answer 70

Social Learning (1 identification mark) is when someone observes the behaviour of someone else/pay attention to behaviour (1 correct statement
mark);
They retain this information for use at a later date;
The organism/person/animal must feel capable of replicating that behaviour;
The need to be motivated is vicarious reinforcement;
Operant conditioning (1 identification mark) is when an animal/person learns
by the consequences of its behaviour (1 correct statement mark);
If a behaviour is followed by a reward they are more likely to repeat;
If a behaviour is followed by punishment then they are less likely to repeat;
Looked at the cognitive skill of distinguishing same and different in a parrot (1 example mark);

Question 71

describe the correction procedure in pepperberg

Answer 71

If it was an incorrect or indistinct vocalisation, Alex was told ‘No!’ and had the object removed while the trainer turned their head away from the parrot (known as a ‘time-out’). This correction procedure was repeated until the correct response was given, and the number of errors was recorded.