Learning And Memory Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
Classic conditioning
A
Pavlov
- was studying digestive processes in dogs
- notice that dogs begin to salivate two meat powder and associated stimuli
- decided to investigate the phenomenon
2
Q
Unconditioned stimulus( us)
A
+ naturally elicits response
Example: meat powder
3
Q
Unconditioned response
A
+ naturally elicited response
Example: salivation
4
Q
Conditioned stimulus(CS)
A
- does it naturally elicit response but after repeated pairing conditioned response is similar but weaker in magnitude to the conditioned response
Example: ringing of bell
5
Q
Conditioned response( CR)
A
- similar to the unconditioned response but weaker in magnitude
Example: salivation
6
Q
Factors that influence the effectiveness of classical conditioning
A
+ number of pairings
- temporal relationship between the cs and the US
7
Q
Delay conditioning
A
- the condition stimulus up in (cs) is presented so it proceeds and overlaps with presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (us)
- most effective, delay of 1/2 second between presentation of cs and us is optimal
8
Q
Trace conditioning
A
- condition stimulus (cs) is presented and terminated before presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (us)
9
Q
Simultaneous conditioning
A
- condition stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (us) are presented and terminated at the same time
- less effective
10
Q
Backwards conditioning
A
- you present the unconditioned stimulus (us) before the condition. Stimulus (cs)
- unlikely to produce a conditioned response
11
Q
Effectiveness of classic conditioning
A
- the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus is contingent upon the presentation of the condition stimulus
12
Q
Classical Extinction
A
The loss of a conditioned response because it has been repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (us)
13
Q
Spontaneous recovery
A
- conditioned response has been extinguished but later occurs when the cs is presented even though it has not been presented again with the US
+ Extinguished response is suppressed not eliminated
14
Q
Stimulus generalization
A
- stimuli similar to the cs illicit condition response even though never presented with the US
- when using 800 HZ tone presented with meat powder to elicit salvation, 600 HZ and a thousand HZ began to produce salvation even though never paired
15
Q
Stimulus discrimination
A
- ability to discriminate between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli and respond only to the cs with CR
-
16
Q
Discrimination training
A
- can teach to be able to discriminate between the cs and similar stimuli
- present the 800 HZ toned with meat powder and the 600 HZ tone without and condition the dogs to salivate only to the 800 HZ tone
17
Q
Experimental neurosis
A
Unusual behaviors exhibited by Pavlov’s dogs when they were required to make difficult decisions regarding discrimination during discrimination training
Extreme Agitation and aggressive behavior in the dogs
- conflict between the excitatory and inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex
18
Q
Higher order conditioning
A
- treat CS as an US and repeatedly present it with a new neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus becomes a CS and elicits the conditioned response when presented alone
- Pavlov: paired presentation of ringing Bell with meat powder so that presentation of the ringing Bell alone produce salivation
- then paired presentation of a black square printed on paper with the ringing Bell so that eventually presentation of the black square alone elicited salivation
- when higher, order conditioning involves a second condition stimuli it’s second order conditioning and when the third, third order and so on
+ Original believed had no limits but in dogs it was found that can’t produce past second order
19
Q
Little Albert
A
Watson
- proposed that many phobic reactions are classic conditioned
- Alyssa did a startle response to a white rabbit and little Albert by pairing alpresentation of a white rabbit with a loud noise that naturally elicited a startle response
- White rabbit was a neutral stimulus, but after repeated pairing became a condition stimulus and Edison that started response
+ Little Albert elicited a great deal of stimulus generalization and reacted to other white furry objects with the startle response
20
Q
Interventions that use classical conditioning to alter behavior
A
- Extinction
- counter conditioning
21
Q
Interventions that use classical conditioning to alter behavior
A
- Extinction
- counter conditioning
22
Q
Interventions based on Extinction
A
- assume that an object or situation that does not ordinarily produce anxiety or fear has become a conditioned stimulus that now produces a conditioned response of fear or anxiety because at some time it was paired with the unconditional stimulus that naturally elicited fear or anxiety
- exposure with response prevention
- implosive therapy
23
Q
Exposure with response prevention
A
Assumes repeated exposure to the cs without the US will result in Extinction of the CR
- A conditioned anxiety response is never extinguished because the person avoids The conditioned stimulus to avoid anxiety
- you expose the person to anxiety. Arousing object or situation while prohibiting them from engaging in avoidance behaviors as a result, the conditioned response of anxiety is extinguished
- in vivo( real life setting ), virtual reality, or in imagination (imaginal)
- flooding or graded exposure?
24
Q
Flooding
A
- client is subjected to exposure to a stimuli that elicits the most intents anxiety during all exposure sessions
- effective
25
Graded exposure
- exposed client to stimuli that evoke low levels of anxiety and in gradually increase to stimuli that increase in the intensity of anxiety
- acceptable to clients
26
Graded exposure
- exposed client to stimuli that evoke low levels of anxiety and in gradually increase to stimuli that increase in the intensity of anxiety
- acceptable to clients
27
Flooding and graded exposure
- each session should not end until the client has experienced substantial decrease in anxiety in order to be most effective
28
Implosive therapy
+ type of exposure that's always conducted in imagination and includes elements of psychodynamic...
- client imagines the feared object or situation in a way that elicits a high level of anxiety, the therapist then embellishes The imagine scene with a psychodynamic theme that is believed to be a contributor to the client's anxiety (sample unacceptable, sexual or aggressive impulse )
29
Interventions based on counter conditioning
- eliminate anxiety or fear response by pairing the stimulus that elicits fear/anxiety with a stimulus that elicits and incompatible response or with the incompatible response itself
- use classical conditioning to eliminate The anxiety response by parrying the anxiety arousing stimulus, either with the stimulus that nationally elicits a incompatible response or the incompatible response itself, anxiety arousing stimulus will then elicit the incompatible response instead of anxiety
- sysytematic desensitization:
30
Systematic desensitization
-Wolpe
- treatment of phobic anxiety
- The effectiveness of systematic desensitization is due to counter conditioning (reciprocal inhibition), But dismantling strategy found that it may be due to exposure to the individual feared stimuli
- pair stimuli that produce anxiety with relaxation
- conducted in imagination
- three steps:.
" Training and relaxation
* Constructing an anxiety hierarchy
.* Desensitization
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Training in relaxation
Wolpe- step one
- client learns progressive muscle relaxation or other relaxation procedure
32
Constructing anxiety hierarchy
Wolpe- systematic desensitization step 2
- client and therapist create an anxiety hierarchy consisting of 10 to 20 stimuli that range in intensity of anxiety from low to high
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Desensitization
Wolpe- systematic desensitization step 3
- client begins with the least anxiety provoking stimuli and practices relaxation techniques until they can maintain relaxation, then move on to the next stimuli on the hierarchy. This continues on until they can imagine the most anxiety-inducing stimuli and maintain a relaxed state
- when feasible, the client may be asked to start confronting anxiety-inducing stimuli in real life when they have been desensitized to about 75 to 80% of the anxiety arousing stimuli and the anxiety hierarchy starting with stimuli that correspond to stimuli on the hierarchy that they have already been desensitized to in imagination
34
Aversive counterconditioning(aversion therapy)
- stimuli that elicits an undesirable behavior is paired with an unconditional stimulus that naturally elicits pain or other unpleasant response so that the self-reinforcing response is replaced by the unpleasant response
Ex. Presentation of the fetish object is paired with mild electric shock, electric shock is the unconditioned stimulus and pain is the unconditioned response. As a result of repeatedly presenting the fetish object with electric shock, the fetish object becomes conditioned stimulus and produces a conditioned response of pain rather than arousal
35
Covert desensitization
- aversive counterconditioning conducted in imagination
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Blocking
- classical conditioning of the first neutral stimulus blocks classical conditioning of the second, neutral stimulus and the second neutral stimulus never becomes a conditioned stimulus
- the second neutral stimulus does not provide any new information about the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus
37
EDMR
- research using the dismantling strategy found that admr is effective due to exposure to a feared stimuli not eye movement
38
Operant conditioning
Skinner
- whether or not a voluntary behavior is emitted depends on how it operates on the environment.
Produces reinforcement which increases the behavior or punishment which decreases or eliminates the behavior
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Positive reinforcement
Operant conditioning- Skinner
- behavior increases because a stimulus is applied following the behavior
Example: kid completes chores because they get a dollar after they finish
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Negative reinforcement
Operant conditioning- Skinner
- behavior increases because a stimulus is removed following the behavior
Example: a kid completes chores because when they do, their parents stop nagging
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Positive punishment
Operant conditioning – skinner
- behavior decreases because of stimula is applied following the behavior
Example: a kid stopped acting out because when they do they get extra homework
42
Negative punishment
- Skinner: operant conditioning
- behavior decreases due to a stimulus being removed following a behavior
- a kid stops acting out because they lose their recess
43
Continuous schedule of reinforcement
- reinforcement is provided every time behavior occurs
- fastest acquisition of behavior but can lead to satiation or rapid Extinction
44
Intermittent schedule of reinforcement
- reinforcement is provided after a certain length of time or number of responses
45
Satiation
- operant conditioning
The reinforcer loses its reinforcing value
46
Extinction
- operant conditioning
- previously reinforced behavior no longer occurs because reinforcement has been terminated
47
How to avoid satiation and Extinction in operant conditioning
- start off with continuous schedule of reinforcement and then switch to intermittent schedule once behavior occurs at the desired level
48
Fixed interval schedule(Fi)
- reinforcement is provided at a fixed interval of time as long as the response occurs at least once during the interval
- low rate of responding, with responses being made shortly before the end of the each interval
49
Variable interval (VI)
- reinforcement is applied after an interval of time that varies in length of time as long as the response occurs at least once during the interval
- produce steady but relatively low rate of responding
50
Fixed ratio schedule(FR)
- reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses
- produces a steady in relatively High rate of responding
51
Variable ratio schedule( VR)
- reinforcement is provided after a variable number of responses
- has the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to Extinction
52
Operant Extinction
- previously reinforced behavior stops because the behavior is no longer reinforced
53
Extinction burst
Operant conditioning..
- temporary increase of behavior intensity or frequency that occurs immediately after a reinforcer is withheld
54
Thinning
- operant conditioning
- decreasing the amount of reinforcement that is provided following a behavior
- changing from a continuous schedule reinforcement to a intermittent schedule of reinforcement or from an FI 30 sec schedule to an fi-60 second schedule
- thinning the amount of reinforcement once the behavior has reached its desired level helps increase resistance to Extinction
55
Matching law
- when different reinforcement schedules when are concurrently provided for two or more behaviors? The rate of performing each behavior will be proportionate to the frequency of reinforcement
The rate of responding will match the magnitude of the reinforcement
Ex. If a pigeon is on a VI 30-second schedule for packing a black key and a vi 60 second schedule for packing a white key, it will pack the white key twice as often as the black key
56
Superstitious behavior
operant conditioning
- behavior that is repeated because it was accidentally reinforced
57
Stimulus control
Operant conditioning And classical conditioning
- Signal whether or not a behavior will be reinforced and therefore determine whether the behavior will be performed
Example: a pigeon learn that when a light is blinking in its cage and it packs a key food will be delivered. But when the light is not blinking, it will not receive food when it pecks the key and as a result it only pecks the key when the light is blinking
58
Escape conditioning
Operant conditioning
- application of negative reinforce
- behavior is performed to escape an adversive stimulus
59
Avoidance conditioning
- combines negative reinforcement with classic conditioning
- occurs when a behavior is performed to avoid an aversive stimulus
The rat's lever pressing is due to negative reinforcement which is operant conditioning and learning that the blinking line is going to indicate that electric shock is going to be delivered is classical conditioning component, the blinking light has become a conditioned stimulus because of its association with the electric shock
60
Interventions based on operant conditioning
- use positive reinforcement, punishment, and or Extinction
61
Interventions based on operant conditioning: positive reinforcement
- used to establish or increase a behavior
- shaping, chaining, and the premack principle
62
Shaping
Operant conditioning- positive reinforcement
- reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the desired behavior
Ex. Modeling and shaping to teach kids with autism how to speak. Reinforced any vocalizations with food and praise, then reinforcing only for making any vocalization after a teacher said a word then only for making sounds that were similar to the teacher's words, and then only for imitating the teacher's word
63
Chaining
- operant conditioning
- used to establish complex behaviors That consists of separate responses that are linked to form a behavior chain
. Can be forward or backward
64
Forward chaining
Operant conditioning
Teach age response separately depending on the first response in the behavior chain and once that response is mastered teaching the next response and continue on until the person can perform the entire behavioral chain
65
Backward chaining
Operant conditioning
You start with the last behavior in the behavior chain and then teach the second to last response and so on
- until reinforcement is only provided when the person performs the whole behavior chain
66
Premack principal
- A high frequency or preferred behavior is used to reinforce and increase the frequency of a low frequency behavior
Ex telling your kid they can't eat dessert until they have their dinner
67
Interventions based on punishment
- used to decrease or eliminate behaviors
- over correction, response cost, and time out
68
Overcorrection
Operant conditioning: punishment..
-positive punishment
- require the person to correct the consequence of their behavior, (restitution- restore the environment) and or practice alternative and more appropriate behaviors similar to the desirable behavior(positive practice)
- May include providing verbal instructions and or physical guidance
69
Response cost
- type of negative punishment
- withdraw a desirable activity or other reinforcer following and undesirable behavior
-ex point system: subtract a certain number of points a child has accumulated every time they are disruptive
70
Time out
- negative punishment
- remove all opportunities for reinforcement for a brief period of time following an undesirable behavior to decrease or eliminate that behavior
- More affected when you remind the child of the reason and the duration at its beginning, it's applied consistently and immediately after misbehavior occurs and the duration of the timeout is brief (1 to 10 min) And combined with positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviors
71
Interventions based on operant Extinction
- remove reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior to eliminate that behavior
- example, if a kid's misbehavior is being reinforced by attention from their siblings, sure that the siblings stop paying attention to the kid whenever they misbehave
- removal of reinforcement must be consistent and combined with reinforcement for appropriate behaviors
72
Differential reinforce
Operant conditioning
- combines Extinction with positive reinforcement
-
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Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (dra)
Operant conditioning
- removing reinforcement from the undesirable behavior while providing reinforcement for an alternative behavior That provides the same reinforcement as the undesirable behavior
Ex. If a kid frequently gets up from their desk and wanders around the classroom because they need a break from their work, the undesirable behavior is getting up from their desk and the reinforcement is the break from their work
- alternative behavior would be giving the kid a I want a break card to hold up when they need to take a break and that the teacher can respond to by giving them a break
-
74
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (dro)
Operant conditioning
- removing reinforcement from the undesirable behavior while providing reinforcement for engaging in other behavior.
- example: to reduce nail biting a child is reinforced for every 15 minutes. They don't bite their nails, but instead engages in other desirable behaviors
75
Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (dri))
- remove reinforcement from the undesirable behavior and provide reinforcement for an incompatible behavior that cannot be performed simultaneously with the undesirable behavior
Ex to get a child to eating with his finger to get a child to stop eating with their fingers parent ignores the child when they use their fingers and praises when they use a fork
76
Differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior (DRL))
- provide reinforcement only when the behavior occurs at a low rate
Ex to reduce the number of times, a student raises their hand and calls out in class without being called upon a teacher reinforces a student with points for every hour the student raises their hand and calls out three or fewer times, not for every hour they raise their hand and call out four or more times
77
Behavioral contrast
- The effects of changing the reinforcement schedule from one reinforced response on the frequency of another reinforced response when its schedule remains unchanged
- A result of the matching law
78
Behavioral contrast
- The effects of changing the reinforcement schedule from one reinforced response on the frequency of another reinforced response when its schedule remains unchanged
- A result of the matching law
79
Latent learning
Tolman
- rats in a maze
+ Research demonstrated that rats formed a cognitive map of the maze without being reinforced
- occurs without reinforcement but may not be demonstrated until reinforcement is provided
80
Insight learning
Kohler
- research with chimps, sultan sticks outside of a cage to reach a banana
- confirmed their hypothesis that learning can be the result of a " aha!" Moment, a sudden burst of insight into the solution of a problem
81
Observational learning
-bandura
- research on kids and adults
- people can acquire a behavior through observing a model perform it
- 4 processes:
- attention: must pay attention to behavior
- retention(memory): must store information about behavior into memory
- production (imitation): must be capable of transforming the memory into overt behavior to replicate it
- motivation: must be motivated to perform behavior
- reinforcement isn't necessary but increases motivation, can take the form of self-reinforcement, external reinforcement, or vicarious reinforcement (give model reinforcement after behavior is performed)
82
Multi-Store model of memory
+ also known as information processing model
- distinguishes between short-term, long-term, and sensory memory
83
Sensory memory
- can store a a long large amount of incoming sensory info for a very brief time
- duration depends on the type of information (iconic [visual] - 1/2 second, echoic [auditory] dash 2 seconds)
- when you focus attention in sensory memory. It's transferred to short-term memory
84
Short-Term memory
- small amount of information for 20 seconds unless rehearsed..
- consists of memory span (primary primary memory) and working memory
85
Memory span (primary memory)
- capacity of short-term memory is 7 + or minus two units of information
- can be expanded by chunking information
86
Working memory
- processing and manipulating information
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Long-Term memory
- when information is encoded in the short-term memory, it's transferred to the long term memory
- capacity and duration believed to be unlimited
- recent memory and remote memory
88
Encoding
- rehearsing information or using a mnemonic?
89
Rehearsal
- two types of rehearsal: maintenance and elaborative rehearsal
90
Maintenance rehearsal
- involves repeating the information
- less effective
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Elaborative rehearsal
- involves making information meaningful by connecting it with information already established in long-term memory
92
Recent long-term memory
+ secondary memory
- contains memories that have been stored from minutes to years
93
Remote long-term memory
+ tertiary memory
- contains memories that have been stored from years to decades
94
Baddeley's model of working memory
Working memory consists of the central executive and three other subsystems: phonological loop, episodic buffer, and visual spatial sketch pad
95
Central executive
Baddeley
+ Coordinates All of the cognitive processes that involve working memory
- controls the subsystems by directing attention to relevant information and suppressing irrelevant information
96
Phonological loop And visual spatial sketch pad
Baddeley
- responsible for the temporary storage of verbal information and visual and spatial information
97
Episodic buffer
-Baddeley
- responsible for integrating verbal, visual, and spatial information and linking working memory to long-term memory
98
Long types of long-term memory
- procedural memories
- declarative memories
- implicit memories
- retrospective memories
99
Procedural memories
- memories for " Knowing how"
Ex. Knowing how to walk, type on a keyboard, or ride a bike
100
Declarative memories
- memories for "knowing what"
- divided into semantic and episodic memories
101
Semantic memories
Type of declarative memory
- memories for facts, concepts, and other acquired information
- example: remembering the definition of procedural and declarative memory
102
Episodic (autobiographic) memories
Type of declarative memory
_ memories for personally experienced events
Example: remembering what you did on your last birthday
103
Implicit memories
- memories that are recalled automatically and without a conscious effort
- term often used interchangeable with non-declarative memory
Include but are not limited to procedural memories
Ex. Recite the alphabet without conscious effort and automatically react with anxiety whenever you think about a traumatic event and you experience several months ago
104
Explicit memories
- recall deliberately and with conscious effort
- term explicit memory is used interchangeably with declarative memory
105
Retrospective memories
- memories for events that occurred in the past
106
Retrospective memories
- memories for events that occurred in the past
107
Prospective memories
- memories that will occur in the future
- remembering to remember
Example: remembering to take medications at a scheduled time
108
Retrieval cue failure
- also known as: Cue dependent forgetting
- The inability to recall information from long-term memory without adequate retrieval cues
Due to inadequate or missing retrieval cues
Example: the tip of the tongue phenomenon- certain that you know something but can't retrieve it
109
Trace Decay theory
- memories create physical changes (Traces) and the brain that deteriorate over time if they are not periodically recalled
- forget it is due to the fading of memory traces over time
- not well supported by research
-research- subject into sleep group remembered more than a distraction which does not support Trace decay theory which predicts that subjects in the two groups would recall the same number of words because the amount of time between learning and recall was the same for both groups
110
Interference theory
- attributes forgetting to the disruption of memories by previously or more recently acquired information
- especially when the previously acquired or more recently acquired information are similar
- proactive in retroactive interference
111
Proactive interference
- when previously acquired information interferes with the ability to recall more recently acquired information
Ex when memorization of a list of 10 words 2 days ago, interferes with your ability to recall a different list of 10 words that you remembered yesterday
112
Proactive interference
- when previously acquired information interferes with the ability to recall more recently acquired information
Ex when memorization of a list of 10 words 2 days ago, interferes with your ability to recall a different list of 10 words that you remembered yesterday
113
Retroactive interference
- newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall previously acquired information
-ex when memorizing a new list of 10 words interferes with your ability to recall a previously memorized list of 10 words
114
Memory strategies
- elaborate rehearsal, verbal pneumonics, visual imagery, pneumonics, and practice testing
115
Verbal mnemonics
- include acronyms and acrostics which are useful for memorizing a list of words
116
Verbal mnemonics
- include acronyms and acrostics which are useful for memorizing a list of words
117
Elaborative rehearsal
- semantic and codeine
- making new information meaningful by relating it to information you already learned and generating personally meaningful examples
118
Acronym
- first letter of each word to be memorized is used to create a word or pronouncable non-word
Ex Homes- to remember five Great lakes
119
Acrostic
- phrase or sentence consisting of familiar words is created with each word in the phrase or sentence beginning with the first letter of one of the words to be memorized
Ex. Smart people can't forget is an acrostic for piagetes stages of cognitive developing: sensory motor, Pre-Operational, concrete operational, and formal operational
120
Keyword method
- visual imagery mnemonic
- useful for linking two items
Ex. Equivalent of an English learning the foreign language equivalent for an English word
121
Method of loci
- visual imagery mnemonic
- useful when remembering a list of objects
- linking an image of each object to a specific place in a familiar location
Ex. To remember what you get. Need to get from the store you to think of an image that links each item to a different landmark you passed when driving home from work. Then when you're at the store you mentally drive past the landmark
Ex
122
Method of loci
- visual imagery mnemonic
- useful when remembering a list of objects
- linking an image of each object to a specific place in a familiar location
Ex. To remember what you get. Need to get from the store you to think of an image that links each item to a different landmark you passed when driving home from work. Then when you're at the store you mentally drive past the landmark
Ex
123
Practice testing
- AKA the testing effect
- refers to the benefits of repeatedly recalling information during the learning process by taking practice exams and using flashcards
- involves retrieving information from long-term memory
- confirmed by a number of studies, facilitates learning and recalling information better than just increasing study time and is especially beneficial when preparing for multiple choice tests
124
Practice testing
- AKA the testing effect
- refers to the benefits of repeatedly recalling information during the learning process by taking practice exams and using flashcards
- involves retrieving information from long-term memory
- confirmed by a number of studies, facilitates learning and recalling information better than just increasing study time and is especially beneficial when preparing for multiple choice tests
125
Internal inhibition
Pavlov
Classical conditioning
- physiological process that suppresses the association between the CS and the CR
126
Overshadowing
Classic conditioning
- two neutral stimuli are repeatedly presented together before the US.
- when the stimuli are presented together they will elicit a CR but when each stimulus is presented alone the stronger stimulus produces CR but the weaker stimulus does not
- the failure for the less alien stimulus to become ACS is not due to its low segments but to being overshadowed by the more salient stimulus when the two stimuli are presented together during conditioning trials
127
Negative behavioral contrast
- operant conditioning
- when the amount of reinforcement for behavior A is increased while the amount of reinforcement for behavior B Is unaltered
, behavior A Will increase and behavior B Will decrease
- occurs when the behavior with unaltered reinforcement decreases
128
Positive behavioral contrast
- when the amount of reinforcement for behavior A is decreased while the amount of reinforcement for behavior B is unaltered
- behavior A will decrease and behavior B will increase
- occurs when the behavior with unaltered reinforcement increases
129
Primary reinforcerers
- food, water,: 's. Inherently reinforcing because satisfy needs related to basic survival
130
Secondary reinforcerers
- neutral stimuli that become reinforcing because of their association with primary reinforcers
- praise, tokens
131
Generalized reinforcerers
- AKA generalized secondary reinforcerers/generalized conditioned reinforcers
- secondary reinforcerers that are associated with the variety of backup (primary)
- money because it can be exchanged for a variety of backup. Reinforcerers
