learning and development Flashcards
what is learning?
“changed or new behaviour resulting from new or reinterpreted knowledge that has been derived from an external or internal experience” (Torrington et al, 2011, p.393)
what is education?
“activities which aim at developing the knowledge, skills, moral values and understanding required in all aspects of life…to develop an understanding of the traditions and ideas influencing the society in which we live” (Reid and Barrington, 1997, p7)
what is training?
“…a planned process to modify attitudes, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning…to achieve effective performance in an activity” (Reid and Barrington, 1997, p7)
what is development?
“…is usually an umbrella term and covers training and learning. It may cover a long period of enhancing skills and knowledge through a wide range of techniques” (Marchington, 2008, p. 344)
why do learning and development matter for national governments?
why do learning and development matter for individuals?
why do learning and development matter for employers?
what do the department for business innovation and skills say about learning?
“We know that investing in skills pays a double dividend for society. Skilled individuals have more options and climb higher. They earn more, get greater satisfaction from their jobs, and the wealth they help create stimulates the creation of more jobs. Skilled people are the building block of successful businesses, especially businesses built on sophisticated services or complex processes.”
(BIS), 2009)
what is human resource development?
“a term used to indicate training and development as an organisation’s investment in the learning of its people as part of an HRM approach” (Bratton and Gold)
what is the overall aim of human resource development?
to provide learning experiences in the workplace in order to train, develop and retain staff
what is the systematic approach to human resource development?
it is central
what is the process of human resource development?
analysis, design, delivery, implementation, evaluation
what is central to human resource development?
concept of learning organisation
what does Lee’s (1996) typology include?
- behaviourism (hands)
- cognitivism (head)
- humanism (heart)
what did Stewart (2002) say about the behaviourist approach?
human behaviour is the product of experience of and within physical and social environments
- association between sense impressions called stimuli to actions called responses (Pavlov and Thorndike)
what did Howe (1980) say about behaviourism?
the strength of the connection will be influenced by the degree of reward or punishment - reinforcement (Skinner 1953)
what are the problems with behaviourism?
cause and effect can be very difficult to link (Skinner 1953:9)
what is a real world example of behaviourism?
positive reinforcement:Verbal praise, lunches, badges, equipment, prizes
Positive Punishment:
Supervisors observations, strikes system, fear of getting sacked
Negative reinforcement:
Can’t get onto site without the correct PPE
Negative punishment:
Removal of overtime for misdemeanours
what is cognitivism?
emphasises the process of learning rather than the outcomes of learning
processing of information - organise data to make sense of it
what happens in cognitivism when new information arrives?
- may attach itself to a pre-existing cognitive structure
- change an existing structure
- go into a new structure
what are the cognitive process?
learning through: solving problems, trial and error, insight, using feedback
- set of mental instructions
- coded in the brain
- routine problem solving, reinforces and refines existing knowledge
- an individual may reject new knowledge if it could cause substantial changes which the individual is not willing to accept
what is social learning theory
- learning is a social activity, based on our need to fit in
- through observation individuals can visualise the consequences of actions and regulate their own behaviour (Bandura, 1977)
what is social learning theory a combination of?
both behaviourism and cognitivism - great deal of learning through observation and imitation but also recognises ability to think, symbolise and figure our cause-and-effect relationships
what did Kramlinger and Huberty, 1990 say about learning
learning occurs through reflection on personal experience
what are the principles for guiding and directing adult learning by Malcom Knowles (1998)
- learning motivation - adults should know the rational for learning something prior to instruction
- self-direction - adults are independent and are both responsible for their own decisions and capable of guiding their own learning
- role of experience - experience of adults should be acknowledged and should form an integral part of the learning process
- preparedness to learn - adults will come to learn when they are ready to acquire new knowledge and skills
- learning focus - adults view learning as a vehicle to assist them in performing tasks and solving real-life situations
what is the experiential learning theory?
- learning more powerful if its grounded in experience and context of learner
- active engagement in problem-solving (Holman, 2000)
- action and thought brought together (Wilson and Beard, 2003)
- theorists
the learning cycle - Kolb et al. 1984
learning styles - Honey and Mumford 1986
what are Honey and Mustard’s learning styles and what do these styles have an orientation towards
activist - active experimentation
reflector - observation & reflection
theorist - abstract conceptualisation
pragmatist - concrete experience
what are the applications of the learning theories in the workplace
Behaviourism – e.g. construction industry health and safety, reward for managers with low accident levels. Three strikes or card system for safety lapses. Reinforcing behaviours you want training transfer.
Cognitive – joinery, skilled job, practice and trial and error. Problem solving and Doctors…
Social learning – appropriate role models e.g. diversity training. Induction.
Constructivist – when brining about change you need to think about of previous regimes and practices.
Learning styles – training courses must cater for each style
what is social constructivism? (Gunnarsson, 1997)
- knowledge and representations of reality are:
- interactionally constructed
- socially transmitted
- historically sedimented
- institutionally congealed
- communicatively reproduced
how does human resource development link to strategy
business strategy -> HR strategy -> HRD strategy -> added value + competitive advantage
- all HR strategies, including training must be linked to the business strategy
- more effective if business les
- adding value - producing high business returns in comparison to the cost of initiatives
what are the stages of designing learning and development?
stage one - assessing training needs
stage two - planning training
stage three - carrying out the training
stage four - evaluating the training
what is involved in stage one: assessing training needs?
training needs analysis is about finding the competency gap between what capabilities do existing employees possess and what capabilities will be required to carry out the job/task?
“A sequence of comprehensive analysis used to identify where current skills need to be developed to achieve an organisations future strategy.” (Maund, 2001)
what is involved in stage two: planning training
report on overall training needs for the organisation or department and prioritisation of learning needs + personal development plans (PDPs) ->
learning and training plans
- training objective: target for measuring performance
- training content: to close the gap
- duration: content covered and practice required
what is involved in stage three: carrying out training?
learning events (e.g. Martin, 2005)
Demonstration (Nelly)
Coaching
Discovery training
Job rotation, secondment and special assignments
Action learning (team problem solving)
Mentoring / coaching
Lectures
Talks and discussion
Case studies
Role play and simulation
Distance learning
E-learning
CPD
On the job
Group discussion
Video / film
Projects
Case study
Blended leaning
+ many more…
what is involved in stage four: evaluating training?
kirkpatrick (1959) suggests;
1) learners reaction through things such as happy sheets
2) immediate test or exercise
3) immediate impact on personal performance
4) strategic impact on organisational performance
why bother evaluating training? (CIPD, 2007)
To prove the value of the training
To improve the quality of the training offered
To evaluate as a contribution to the learning process
To evaluate as a control over the training
what is the value and cost of evaluation programmes?
- What added value does evaluation contribute?
Consider: training designers, learners, buyers - Is the choice of measure appropriate to the goals of the training programme?
- What are the potential negative consequences of evaluation on the organisational climate?
- Who will fund the evaluation?
- How is the value of the evaluation measured?
what are common training programmes for employees and volunteers in sports orgs?
Communication
Negotiation
Customer service
Codes of conduct
Conflicts of interest and corporate social responsibility
Good corporate governance
Diversity
Volunteer management
Coaching and officiating
where does context learning apply?
- An effective workforce is a product of a range of things – training, job design, status, control systems and discretion
- Individuals need enough discretion and challenge in their work to exercise their skills
- Reduction of control especially in professional roles
- Impact of fragmented workforce
- Difference in size and sector of organisation
what are critical theory approaches to learning?
Power, domination and control
- Subtle process for engendering commitment to existing systems to gain control
- Powerful interest groups
- Furtherance of economic exploitation
- Subscription to current ideas and thinking
- Difference of view is discouraged or suppressed
Learning as a vehicle for manipulation
what is critical reflection
“Reynolds (1998) maintains that critical reflection is the cornerstone of emancipatory approaches to education encouraging students to confront the social and political forces which provide the context of their work and question claims of ‘common sense’ or the ‘way thing should be’.” (McGuire, 2014, pg. 30)
Understanding ‘taken-for-granted’ knowledge
