Learning and Cognition

Question 1

Definition of cognition

Answer 1

the act of knowing and understanding; the process of cognition is learning; cognition as a product is how our mind takes an experience and turns it into a mental representation (mental representation = how we represent an idea to our self through cognition process)

Question 2

Definition of learning

Answer 2

any enduring change in the way an organism responds to its environment based on experience
learning is about predicting the future based on past events and using these predictions to guide behaviour

Question 3

What is included in mental representation?

Answer 3

• sensory motor = body learning its boundaries (e.g. a baby learning its restrictions and how the body works)
• abstract thinking (e.g. spatial awareness –> making a map in head of how to get to class)
• the ability to have our own thoughts allowing us to create a physical idea of an abstract idea (language allows us to create labels for certain ideas)

Question 4

Base of cognition comes from where?

Answer 4

Base of all cognition comes from sensorimotor representation

Question 5

Highest level of cognition

Answer 5

relationship between different abstract ideas (e.g. what if?)

Question 6

Is cognition just in our heads?

Answer 6

• information/learning can be found through visual representations
• environment can be a cue for knowledge and can be a off loader for knowledge too (mobile phones or fossils)
• learning is not just in our heads but we can learn from the natural environment too

Question 7

Product of cognition

Answer 7

• experiences from the past combined with the perceptual present (physical environment in front of us at the current moment) can produce a product of cognition
• we sample the physical aspects of the world –> knowledge presented in the environment –> modify this knowledge with our existing knowledge (schema)

Question 8

Measuring the mind

Answer 8

-we can control the stimulus (input) and see the response (output)

• fergus craik = ‘memory happens when we attempt to learn/understanding something’
• brenda miller = ‘patients can understand and learn new things but cannot memorise’

Question 9

Definition of conditioning

Answer 9

associative learning

-important to learn the association between stimulus that can predict other events (especially in terms of survival)

Question 10

Definition of classical conditioning

Answer 10

the learning of an association between two different stimuli producing a response

• learning the association between one event that can reliably predict another event that is naturally associated with either defensive/appetitive reflex
• learning to produce a reflex to a specific stimuli that is not naturally occurring

Question 11

Definition of unconditioned stimulus

Answer 11

stimulus that produces a response that is unconditioned reflex

Question 12

Definition of unconditioned reflex

Answer 12

a reflex that is naturally occuring, without any prior learning

Question 13

Definition of neutral stimulus

Answer 13

a stimuli that does not produce a response

-can become condition stimulus

Question 14

Definition of stimulus generalisation

Answer 14

when a learnt conditioned response can be applied to stimuli that are similar to conditioned stimuli

Question 15

Definition of stimulus discrimination

Answer 15

learned tendency to only respond to a restricted range of stimuli (specific)

• can be learnt by presenting stimuli that are similar but not associating it with unconditioned stimuli but associating specific stimuli with unconditioned stimuli causing organism to only react specifically
• organism learns to predict which stimuli is linked
• extinction of generalisation

Question 16

Definition of extinction

Answer 16

conditioned response is weakened due to CS not being presented along with UCS

-works best over spaced learning (over time –> more effective)

Question 17

Definition of spontaneous recovery

Answer 17

the association between old CS and UCS producing the CR

• it is short lived and will be forgotten again without renewal
• suggests that all learning is not really ‘extinct’ but simply dormant

Question 18

Definition of rapid reaquisition

Answer 18

when an organism learns to associate CS with UCS faster than in original learning

-related to neural pathways in brain as it is already formed and it is simply strengthening now

Question 19

Definition of operant conditioning

Answer 19

act of learning through voluntary behaviour that predict punishment or rewarding consequences

Question 20

Reinforcement - operant conditioning

Answer 20

where behaviour is more likely to be repeated due to reinforcement (positive/negative) due to desirable outcome

Question 21

Positive reinforcement - operant conditioning

Answer 21

(positive - ‘item’ is added into environment)

stimuli or event that is presented due to behaviour as a consequence, increasing likelihood of behaviour

Question 22

Negative reinforcement - operant conditioning

Answer 22

(negative - ‘item’ is removed from environment)
a stimuli or event that is removed from environment which increases likelihood of a behaviour

e.g. closing windows (blocking sun) reinforces sleeping in more (stopping something unpleasant)

Question 23

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 23

frequency at which a reinforcement is introduced (affecting efficiency of increasing/decreasing behaviour)

continuous reinforcement = everytime behaviour displayed, it is always reinforcement

Question 24

Intermitted/Partial Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 24

reinforcement does not always follow after behaviour
Ratio and Interval reinforcement (under partial)

Ratio:
Fixed ratio - after certain times/number of times behaviour is displayed, reinforcement will occur (high rate of response, faster responses=quicker pay off)
e.g. working 1 hour for 1 hour of pay

Variable ratio - rewarded after an average number of behaviour is displayed (high rate of response, persistent behaviour in hopes of reward)
e.g. gambling

Interval:
Fixed interval - reinforcement is presented after fixed time interval after first desired behaviour is presented
(response can be only displayed/excessively shown before reward if presented)
e.g. cramming for a test that is every 4 weeks

Variable interval - reward is presented after average time interval after first time that behaviour is displayed (less predictable, reponse is slower but more efficient long term)
e.g. surprise tests

Question 25

Extinction of reinforced behaviour

Answer 25

occurs when reinforcement is continuously not presented when behaviour is displayed

EXTINCTION BURST - occurs firstly where behaviour is increased then rapidly decreases

extinction behaviour gives arise to variable behaviour (ideal for shaping)
behaviour that was partially reinforced takes longer to extinguish

Question 26

Shaping behaviour

Answer 26

reinforcement of more successive approximations until it reaches desired behaviour
increase high frequency reinforcement of similar behaviour, then dropping reinforcement to cause variable behaviour
wait for behaviour that is closer to desired and reintroduce reinforcement

used for learning of more complex behaviour

Question 27

Punishment - operant conditioning

Answer 27

stimuli/event that decreases likelihood of behaviour (assocation is weakened)

Question 28

Positive punishment - operant

Answer 28

(added to environment)
unpleasant stimuli is followed by behaviour , decreasing likelihood of behaviour

e.g. electric shock

Question 29

Negative punishment - operant (aka response cost)

Answer 29

(removed from environment)
removal of rewarding stimuli leads to decreasing likelihood of a behaviour

e.g. removing food

Question 30

Effectiveness of punishment

Answer 30

less effective than reinforcement because no desired behaviour is introduced
does not cause long-term behaviour change, only suppression of behaviour

if threat/punishment is taken away, behaviour will reoccur
produces negative feelings and there is no learning

Question 31

Effectiveness of punishment (3Cs)

Answer 31

Consistency, Contingency, Continuity

Contingency = introducing punishment immediately after behaviour to establish a CLEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNDESIRED BEHAVIOUR AND PUNISHMENT

Question 32

Alternatives to punishment - operant

Answer 32

stop reinforcing the undesired behaviour (extinction) (e.g. not showing attention to bad behaviour, only rewarding good behaviour)

reinforcing the occurrence of NOT showing undesired behaviour

Question 33

Stimulus substitution - classical

Answer 33

Where CS replaces UCS

e.g. bell replaces food entirely (no need of food to stimulate salivation anymore after learning)

Question 34

Preparatory response theory - classical

Answer 34

Where CS would predict UCS
e.g. a tone predicts and tells rat that a shock is incoming (rat prepares for UCS)

has more evidence in supporting this theory compared to stimulus substitution for efficient/effective learning
helpful for animals in a survival sense

Question 35

Species specificity of learning

Biological Preparedness

Answer 35

within species, there are biological restrains on what/which associations can be learned

taste aversions and phobias (linking to survival)

Question 36

Edward Tolman (cognitive maps)

Answer 36

Studied rats and problem solving to find a way to measure cognitive processes (through strategic techniques to indirectly measure)

Rats were placed in a start box where there was a reward in end box. After several trials, rats can find their way around much quicker with less errors. They may also take short cuts (get out of box and climb to end box)
Tolman concluded that rats would have created a spatial/cognitive map of the maze (learnt through sequence of responses like punishment/reward) (e.g. punishment = dead end)

Question 37

Tolman’s Evidence for Cognitive Maps

Answer 37

Placed rats in two different environments
Preliminary trial: Rats were placed in maze that only had one tunnel to the end (reward) box

Test trial: rats were placed in a sun-burst maze (including the same tunnel in preliminary trial but didn’t lead to goal box)
If they tried same tunnel and realised it did not have end box, majority went to tunnel 6 which lead to the end box (same direction towards the end box) or took tunnel 1 (horizontal lane that reached end box in preliminary trial)

Question 38

Definition of cognitive map

Answer 38

Mental representation of the spatial characteristics of a familiar environment

Question 39

Definition of latent learning

Answer 39

Learning can occur in the absence of rewards and punishments (presented when consequences are present)

Shown by Tolman and Bandura’s experiments

Tolman:
In a trial with rats that had no reinforcement (yet decreasing errors made), rats were making cognitive maps of the maze. After reinforcement was introduced, the average errors decreased dramatically (more than rats that had constant reinforcement)

Learning was LATENT (only shown after reward was presented)

Question 40

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Answer 40

Learning of behaviour through observation

Bandura et al (1965) - Bobo doll experiment
Investigation of children imitating aggressive behaviour

Method: children were shown a video of a model (adult) playing aggressively with a Bobo doll
1 version - adult was reinforced with sweets and treats (candy and soft drinks) after performing actions (verbal: “strong champion” and lots of reinforcements
2 version - adult was punished (shaking of finger and saying “big bully”, “quit picking on the clown”, tripped model and spanked him) (negative reinforcements - threatening to spank again if they get caught) after actions
3 version - no consequences

Standardized method: video started with model walking up to doll and ordering him to move out of the way. After glaring at it, there was 4 NOVEL AGGRESSIVE REPONSES ACCOMPANIED WITH DISTINCTIVE VERBALIZATION:

• sat on top of bobo doll and punched it on the nose saiying “pow, right in the nose, boom boom”
• hit doll’s head with a mallet up right saying “sockeroo. stay down!”
• model kicked doll around saying “fly away”
• model threw rubber balls at doll saying “bang!”

(behaviour was repeated twice, due to specifications it can be seen in children if they replicate easily)

Results: after children were placed in room with Bobo doll to play
No incentive given: all groups still portrayed some behaviour but there was DISTINCT DIFFERENCE between BOY and GIRL results (girls were less likely to demonstrate behaviour, esp in punished version)

Incentive shown: when asked to demonstrate behaviour + reward, all version demonstrated at least 3 of behaviour (regardless of video consequences + gender)

This shows evidence of latent learning + vicarious reinforcement/punishment

Question 41

Definition of observational learning

Answer 41

Occurence of learning indirectly, through reward/punishment of others demonstrating a behaviour

Can take place SOCIALLY or VICARIOUSLY through observation of others (models)

Learning of behaviour takes place by judgement and constructive processing (not just imitating). This is evidence of cognitive processing

Question 42

Definition of vicarious reinforcement (social learning theory)

Answer 42

tendency of behaviour increases due to observing others receiving rewards for same behaviour

Question 43

Definition of vicarious punishment (social learning theory)

Answer 43

tendency of behaviour to decrease due to observing others receiving punishments for same behaviour

Question 44

Definition of memory

Answer 44

set of systems for encoding, storing and retrieval of information acquired through our senses and relating this information to previously acquired information

Question 45

Case study: Clive Wearing (memory loss)

Answer 45

Broadcaster and musician that suffered herpes encephilitis causing his brain to swell
Damage to bilateral hippocampal

• Poor skills to recall autobiography episodes (personal memories aka EPISODIC MEMORIES) and learn new things
• able to recall facts prior to illness, understand/engage in conversations and retained musical skills
• suffered dense retrograde amnesia and severe anterograde amnesia (unable to form new memories)

Question 46

Working memory processes: Encoding

Answer 46

The processing of incoming information to be stored

Acquisition = places information into temporary sensory storage (depending on auditory, visual or sight)

Consolidation = Development of stronger connections and representation of information by cues.
Allows for retrieval of information to be easier without hipppocampus

REQUIRES ATTENTION

Question 47

Working memory processes: Storage

Answer 47

Allows for information to become long-term memories and storage (more permanent to be used for later on)

Long term memories get stored throughout brain (depending on sensory) as a group of neurons that fire impulses at the same time when cued to recreate original experience

Question 48

Working memory processes: Retrieval

Answer 48

Retrieval of information without need of hippocampus of activating neurons
Using information to recreate representation or experience, or demonstrate new behaviour

Strength of retrieval depends on similarity of cues made at ENCODING and those present in RETRIEVAL. Strength of memory trace (neurons must actively reconstruct from different elements around brain which then get reactivated in retrieval) and recency at which memory was last recalled.

Question 49

Storage of information based on sensory

Answer 49

Occipital lobes = visual

Parietal lobes = sight

Temporal lobe = audio

Question 50

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi Store Model (simple model of working memory)

Answer 50

Memory consists of 3 different ‘storages’
Sensory register
Short term memory (rehearsal)
Long term memory

Question 51

Sensory Memory (sensory register of working memory)

Answer 51

Temporary, sensory-based representations of inputs received through sensory channels

• allows for encoding to take place
• sensation only lasts long enough for us to pay attention and store it
• only SOME will be retained

Two memory types:
Iconic (visual)
Echoic (auditory)
-these have a short duration but large capacity storage (according to Sperling)

Test to show evidence of duration + capacity of Iconic Memory = Full and Partial Report Method

Question 52

Full and Partial Report Method (Sperling)

Answer 52

Full Report:
Starts with a square and fixated cross in the middle
Participants look at fixated cross whilst 12 letters flash (4x3) for 500ms
When asked to recall all letters, average was 4 letters recalled
Sperling concluded that maximum capacity of iconic memory is 4 items
Issue: participants were given more than 4 items of information, they weren’t able to take in all 12 information + by the time they recalled 4th item, they forgot the rest (undermining true capacity of iconic memory)

Partial Report:
Same method but participants were asked to only recall 1, 2 or 3rd line.
Participants were able recall 3-4 items indicating that capacity may be much larger than 4 items (large capacity but weak storage + fast decay period)

To measure the duration it can remain we can ask to recall after time periods or change the time information is shown?

Question 53

Atkinson and Shriffin’s model of Short Term Memory Capacity and Duration

Answer 53

Capacity estimated to be 7 items (+/- 2 items)
(or amount that can be revised for about 2 seconds)

Derived from Digit-Span Task:

• participants were given random of sequence of numbers that increased each round
• was asked to recall them in the same order (Immediate serial recall)
• Estimate of capacity is based on success of two trials

Duration estimated to be seconds to minutes (depends on attention on stimulus)

Brown-Peterson task:

• 3 random letters were given verbally then presented with a number in which they have to count backwards in 3’s (prevents participants to rehearse info)
• Retention interval (duration in which participants count backwards) = was controlled and manipulated to see how long it takes for participants to lose attention of letters
• results show after 3 seconds, participants only can recall 0.5 accuracy of letters (50%)

Serial position effects (affects free recalling related to interference)
Primary effects - letters at beginning
Recency effects - letters towards the end

Was argued it was NOT decay of information but a interference of information:
Retroactive interference = recently learnt memory is affecting previous memory (counting task affects letter memory)

Proactive interference = prior memory (letters from previous trials) affects new set of information (new letters to be learnt)

Question 54

Definition of Maintenance Rehearsal

Answer 54

information being kept active in STM until it can be transferred to LTM

Question 55

Limitation of Miller’s Capacity of STM

Answer 55

• miller’s experiment over estimates capacity
• new tests assesses pure capacity of STM (without use of mnemonics aka strategies to remember)

Change-Detection task :
-sample stimulus (coloured boxes in specific spots) are shown for a fraction of a second then a delay is presented (empty stimulus) (retention interval)
-a test stimulus is shown and participants are asked whether it matches initial stimulus
-results showed accurate responses till there was 3 items and decreases from 4 items and more
suggests that true capacity of STM is 3-4 items

Question 56

Chunking (Miller)

Answer 56

• process that increases STM memory (not true capacity of memory though)
• we group input events, giving it a label where we remember the label instead of individual events (e.g. chunking group of number into groups of 3’s)
• adaptation to overcome our limitations + making meaning of what is presented to us
• we don’t just retain information presented, but we try to make sense of it as well
• capacity of STM should be viewed in relation to number of meaningful chunks rather than meaningless different parts of information
• chunking is what is estimated of what we do in the digit-span task
• reduces load on STM and increases capacity

Question 57

Craik and Lockhart’s Level of Processing

Answer 57

-proposed theory in how we process information and likelihood of it being remembered on later on

method:
-participants were given words and asked whether:
it was in capitals (shallow)
it rhymes with ___ (phoenetic)
using the word in a sentence (deep/semantic processing)
-results show :
deeper processing takes longer (more thoughtful processing) but remembered more words
-stronger retention of information (related to more elaborated encoding leads to richer connections with existing long-term memories)

Question 58

Working Memory (Baddeley)

Answer 58

more sophisticated/detailed version of STM
-3 components of STM interlated with CENTRAL EXECUTIVE (allows information to shift from all 3 different groups)

Central executive:

• controls executive processes (planning and coordinating complex behaviour)
• includes goal orientation, focus attention, control of social behaviour, multitasking and problem solving
• based in pre-frontal cortex networks

Phonological Loop:

• governed by left-hemisphere front-temporal lobe network
• maintenance AND active manipulation of information occurs
• to test Phonological loop: digit-span backwards (forwards only measures maintenance)

Visuospatial Sketchpad:
-image and spatial representations
-governed by right occipital-parietal network
-temporarily holds visually-based representation of information (e.g. face mould, objects)
-enables mental manipulation of visual information (e.g. spatial rotation of objects, visual mnemonics, mental arithmetic, cognitive maps)
-test: Block Tapping Task + Image flash (similar to change-detection task)
Block tapping = experimenter taps certain blocks in order and asked to tap in order

Question 59

Working Memory - Relationship between phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 59

They are independent systems (don’t interfere with each other)
this means, we can do a phonological and visuospatial task simultaneously and independently

• we can integrate information from both compartments to form episodic buffers
• episodic buffers = known as perceptual present or the experience of the present now (‘consciousness’)

Question 60

Working memory - Non-Attended Speech Effect

Answer 60

performance on verbal memory tasks decline in the presence of irrelevant speech

Question 61

Crystallized Systems

Answer 61

how content of working memory interacts with previously-learnt information (long-term memory)

(looking at table of working memory: it is how Visual semantics interacts with visuospatial sketchpad)
-knowledge from the past can help us understand/take in new knowledge

Question 62

Parts of brain associated with compartments of Working Memory

Answer 62

Broca’s Area = Phonological Loop
Parietal Lobe = Episodic buffer (perceptual processing)
Occipital Lobe = Visuospatial sketchpad
Pre-frontal cortex = Central executive

Question 63

What is Declarative memory?

Answer 63

Explicit information

• who, what, when, why facts (events, locations)
• HIPPOCAMPAL BASED

Two types of declarative memory:
Semantic - general knowledge of the world, what/why questions, abstract questions (no specific time placements)

Episodic - knowledge from personal experiences, when/where questions, memories with context (time travel back to experience)

To test declarative memory = Explicit memory tests (require to retrieve explicit description, consciously, knowledge from memory)

Question 64

What is Non-Declarative memory?

Answer 64

Implicit information
-‘knowing how to’ knowledge, motor and cognitive skills (riding a bike or reading)
-NON-HIPPOCAMPAL DEPENDENT
type of memory is only revealed in behaviour/performance
improvement in these tasks does not necessarily indicate we are recalling memory of prior learning experience (no need for episodic memory to improve)

Types of Non-Declarative memory:
Procedural memory - ability to learn/improve motor and cognitive skills

Priming - Change in ability to identify a stimulus (due to prior experience)
Can occur due to Repetitive Priming (previously experience) or Associative/Semantic Priming (related stimulus)
Priming is demonstrated by Lexical Decision task
-records response time and accuracy for distinguishing real words from made up words
-participants have to press ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a word
-repetitive priming is done when a word is shown multiple times
-Priming effect = FASTER RESPONSE TIME AND ACCURACY
-Semantic priming was demonstrated with faster times too with words previously shown and similar words (e.g. ‘doctor’ was shown before, faster time on ‘nurse’)

Classical and Operant Conditioning - associative learning

Habituation (non-associative) - learning to ignore a stimulus (if it is not threatening)

Sensitisation (non-associative) - learning to attend to a stimulus if it is potentially threatening

Question 65

What is Amnesia?

Answer 65

Issues with memory due to brain damage, drug abuse, disease or psychological trauma

(cases in amnesia provides lots of information about declarative and non-declarative memory)

Retrograde amnesia - memories from before amnesia is lost
Temporally - gradual lost of memories (recent memories are lost but memories from long ago are present)
Severe - all previous memory lost

Anterograde amnesia - unable to form new memories after amnesia (brain injury/incident)

Question 66

Study Case of H.M. (Henry Molaison) (Scoville)

Answer 66

Patient that experienced seizures that only got worse as he grew older (started with a bike fall)
Thus, had his MEDIAL PORTION OF BOTH TEMPORAL LOBES (INCLUDING HIPPOCAMPI) surgically remove (precise)

• Demonstrated severe anterograde amnesia and temporally graded retrograde amnesia
• unable to form new memories of events and semantic memories
• had normal sensory and working memory
• this demonstrated that hippocampi is essential for encoding and consolidating new memories/info
• temporal lobes were responsible for memory disorder, relating to semantic and episodic (long-term) memory (declarative memory)

Question 67

Learning in Amnesia

Answer 67

Anterograde amnesia patients are still capable of procedural learning (non-declarative learning –> procedural memory)

Mirror tracing task - patients are given a double trace outline of a star and trace the star in between only looking at his hand by reflection in the mirror
(requires cognitive remapping of visual representation onto motor actions) due to reflected image
Results show over a few days HM had less errors every time (even though he had no memory of doing task)

• shows DECLARATIVE and NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY CAN BE DISTINGUISHED/ DISSOCIATED in anterograde amnesia
• this task is a measure of implicit learning (non-declarative memory)

Question 68

Takeaway from Amnesia Cases

Answer 68

Clive had dense retrograde amnesia due to damage to cortical parts too (cerebral cortex)
Clive had some semantic knowledge but no episodic memory which must be due to cortical damage
(yet semantic memories must be more resistant than episodic memories)

H.M. had TEMPORALLY graded retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia with the removal of just medial temporal lobes = MTL is not responsible for memory storage (can recall early semantic/episodic memories)
MTL is possibly responsible for retrieval of memory for certain amount of time (not older memories)