Learning

Question 1

Define learning

Answer 1

A process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behaviour or capabilities

Question 2

What are the basic learning processes?

Answer 2

Non-associative learning – response to repeated stimuli

Classical conditioning – Learning what events signal

Operant conditioning - Learning one thing leads to another

Observational learning – Learning from others

Question 3

Define Habituation

Answer 3

Habituation is a decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.

Responses happen simultaneously and compete to determine behaviour

Question 4

Define Sensitisation

Answer 4

Sensitisation is an increase in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus.

Responses happen simultaneously and compete to determine behaviour

Question 5

Give classical conditioning terminology

Answer 5

Stimuli:

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (the UCR) without prior learning

Conditioned stimulus (CS):
A stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR

Responses

Unconditioned response (UCR): A reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning

Conditioned response (CR): 
A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.

Question 6

When is classical conditioning strongest?

Answer 6

There are repeated CS-UCS pairings
The UCS is more intense
The sequence involves forward pairing (i.e. CS -> UCS)
The time interval between the CS and UCS is short

Question 7

Describe the classical conditional learning in terms of mint and a computer chimes, video

Answer 7

US – Mint
CS – Computer chime
UR – Salivation when mint is presented
CR – Implied salivation/physiological response and expectation of the mint when computer chime occurs

Question 8

Extinction

Answer 8

See graph - CS effects decrease over time when you remove UCS

Question 9

Define stimulus generalization

Answer 9

A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical to a conditioned stimulus.

A similar stimuli will also elicit the CR but in a weaker form. Eg, a 500Hz tone elicits the CR, tones of similar frequency will also elicit CR, the closer the tone to the original the stronger the response
See graph on slides

Question 10

Define stimulus discrimination and give examples

Answer 10

The ability to respond differently to various stimuli.

For example:
A child will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer)
A fear of dogs might only include certain breeds

Question 11

Give a clinical example of classical conditioning?

Answer 11

A significant proportion (25-30%) of patients undergoing chemotherapy experience anticipatory nausea and vomiting.

Chemotherapy (UCS) ——> Nausea (UCR)

Related cues e.g. ——> Anticipatory
Sight of chemotherapy Nausea (CR)
Unit (CS)

See slides for more examples: Little albert, cancer etc

Question 12

Describe the fear learning with an example

Answer 12

Needle phobia:

Traumatic injection —-> Pain/Fear
Trauma (UCS) & Needle (CS) —-> Fear response (UCR)
Clinical setting (CS) —-> Fear response (CR)

Question 13

What is the two-factor theory of maintenance of classical conditioned associations e.g fear?

Answer 13

Trauma (UCS) & Needle (CS) —-> Fear response (UCR)

Avoid injections —> Fear reduced —> Tendency to avoid is reinforced

Question 14

Define Thorndike’s Law of effect

Answer 14

Law of effect:

A response followed by a satisfying consequence will be more likely to occur.
A response followed by an aversive consequence will become less likely to occur

Question 15

Define operant conditioning

Answer 15

Learning one thing leads to another.

Behaviour is learned and maintained by its consequences.

Chronic pain behaviour includes limping, grimacing, and medication requests.
This is often reinforced by family or staff e.g. by being overly sympathetic, encouraging rest, increasing medication
This behaviour is likewise reinforced by gratitude signals from the patient
A cycle is created in which the patient receives positive consequences for “being in pain“, so pain is more likely to occur in frequency

Question 16

Define positive reinforcement

Answer 16

Occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a reinforcer

When something is reinforced something is more likely to occur

Primary Reinforcers: those needed for survival e.g. food, water, sleep, sex

Secondary Reinforcers: stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers e.g. money, praise

Question 17

Define negative reinforcement

Answer 17

Occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus

Negative Reinforcer: the aversive stimulus that is removed or avoided (e.g. the use of painkillers are reinforced by removing pain)

“Positive” and “Negative” refer to presentation or removal of a stimulus, not “good” and “bad”

Question 18

Define positive punishment

Answer 18

Occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus (e.g. squirting a cat with water when it jumps on dining table)

Question 19

Define negative punishment

Answer 19

Occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus (e.g. phone confiscated)

Question 20

What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?

Answer 20

Skinner maintained that reinforcement is a much more potent influence on behaviour than punishment
Largely because punishment can only make certain responses less frequent – you cant teach new behaviour

Question 21

Describe reinforcement schedules

Answer 21

Continuous reinforcement produces more rapid learning than partial reinforcement
The association between a behaviour and its consequences is easier to understand

However, continuously reinforced responses extinguish more rapidly than partially reinforced responses
The shift to no reinforcement is sudden and easier to understand

Question 22

What are the different kinds of reinforcement schedules?

Answer 22

Fixed interval schedule: reinforcement occurs after fixed time interval

Variable interval schedule: the time interval varies at random around an average

Fixed Ratio Schedule: reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses

Variable Ratio Schedule: reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centered around an average

Question 23

Describe social learning theory

Answer 23

Observational (vicarious) learning - We observe the behaviours of others and the consequences of those behaviours.

Vicarious reinforcement - If their behaviours are reinforced we tend to imitate the behaviours

Question 24

Define modelling observational learning

Answer 24

Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person, or by noting consequences of a person’s actions
Occurs before direct practice is allowed

Question 25

What are the steps to successful modeling?

Answer 25

1) Pay attention to model
2) Remember what was done
3) Must be able to reproduce modeled behavior
4) If successful or behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to recur

Question 26

Describe social learning in terms of observational learning

Answer 26

We don’t imitate the behaviour of everyone we encounter

More likely if model is:

• Seen to be rewarded
• High status (e.g. Medical consultant)
• Similar to us (e.g. colleagues)
• Friendly (e.g. peers)