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Psychology > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning

A

Can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

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2
Q

Reflex

A

Automatic involuntary behaviour that does not require prior experience and occurs in the same way each time.

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3
Q

Fixed-action pattern

A

An innate predisposition to behave in a certain way in response to specific environmental stimulus that is observable within a particular species or subgroup of a species.

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4
Q

Maturation

A

A developmental process leading towards maturity, based on the orderly sequence of changes that occurs in the nervous system and other bodily structures controlled by genetic inheritance.

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5
Q

Plasticity

A

The ability of the brain’s neural structure or function to be changed by experience throughout the lifespan.

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6
Q

Developmental plasticity

A

Refers to changes in the brain’s neural structure in response to experience during its growth and development.

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7
Q

Synaptogenesis

A

The process of forming new synapses.

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8
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

The process of eliminating synaptic connections.

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9
Q

Adaptive plasticity

A

Refers to changes occurring in the brain’s neural structure to enable adjustment to experience, to compensate for lost function and/or to maximise remaining functions in the event of brain damage.

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10
Q

Rerouting

A

An undamaged neuron that has lost a connection with an active neuron may seek a new active neuron and connect with it instead.

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11
Q

Sprouting

A

The growth of new bushier nerve fibres with more branches to make new connections.

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12
Q

Sensitive period

A

A period in development when an organism is more responsive to certain environmental stimuli or experiences.

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13
Q

Experience-expectant learning

A

Takes place when the brain encounters the experience that is expected, ideally in a sensitive period because this is the best time for it to occur.

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14
Q

Experience-dependent learning

A

Refers to learning that ‘depends’ on exposure to specific ‘experience’ at any time during an individual’s development.

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15
Q

Critical period

A

A specific period in development during which an organism is most vulnerable to the deprivation or absence of certain environmental stimuli or experiences.

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16
Q

Conditioning

A

The process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment (one event) and a behavioural response (another event).

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17
Q

Stimulus

A

Any object or event that elicits a response from an organism.

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18
Q

Response

A

A reaction by an organism to a stimulus.

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19
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Refers to a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli.

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20
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response.

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21
Q

Unconditioned response

A

The response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented.

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22
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

The stimulus that is ‘neutral’ at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response.

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23
Q

Conditioned response

A

The learned response that is produced by the CS.

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24
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Anything that does not normally produce a predictable response.

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25
Q

Acquisition

A

The overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events.

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26
Q

Extinction

A

The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented.

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27
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period after the CR appears to have been extinguished.

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28
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

The tendency for another stimulus that is similar to the original CS to produce a response that is similar to the CR.

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29
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

Occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.

30
Q

Graduated exposure

A

Involves presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS itself does not produce the conditioned response.

31
Q

Imaginal exposure

A

Imagining each situation using visual imagery.

32
Q

In vivo exposure

A

Real-life exposure to each fear-producing situation.

33
Q

Flooding

A

Involves bringing the client into direct contact with the anxiety or fear-producing stimulus and keeping them in contact with it until the conditioned response is extinguished.

34
Q

Aversion therapy

A

A form of behaviour therapy that applies classical conditioning processes to inhibit or discourage undesirable behaviour by associating it with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus such as a feeling of disgust, pain or nausea.

35
Q

Trial and error learning

A

Involves learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved.

36
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A type of learning whereby the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future.

37
Q

The three phase model of operant conditioning

A
  1. The discriminative stimulus that occurs before a particular response.
  2. The response that occurs due to the discriminative stimulus.
  3. The consequence to the response.
38
Q

Discriminative stimulus

A

The stimulus that precedes a particular response, signals the probable consequence for the response and therefore influences the occurrence of the response.

39
Q

Response

A

Voluntary behaviour that occurs in the presence of the discriminative stimulus.

40
Q

Consequence

A

The environmental event that occurs immediately after the response and determines whether or not the response will occur.

41
Q

Skinner box

A

A small chamber in which an experimental animal learns to make a particular response for which the consequences can be controlled by the researcher.

42
Q

Reinforcement

A

Occurs when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows.

43
Q

Reinforcer

A

Any stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows.

44
Q

Positive reinforcer

A

A stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence.

45
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Occurs from giving or applying a positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made.

46
Q

Negative reinforcer

A

Any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired outcome.

47
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

The removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.

48
Q

Punishment

A

The delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response.

49
Q

Positive punishment

A

Involves the presentation of a stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again.

50
Q

Negative punishment

A

Involves the removal or loss of a stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again.

51
Q

Response cost

A

Involving removal of any valued stimulus, whether or not it causes the behaviour.

52
Q

Schedule of reinforcement

A

A program for giving reinforcement: specifically the frequency and manner in which a desired response is reinforced.

53
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Reinforcing every correct response after it occurs.

54
Q

Partial reinforcement

A

The process of reinforcing some correct responses but not all of them.

55
Q

Fixed-ratio schedule

A

When the reinforcer is given after a set, unvarying number of desired responses have been made.

56
Q

Variable-ratio schedule

A

When the reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of correct responses.

57
Q

Fixed-interval schedule

A

Involves delivery of the reinforcer after a specific, or fixed, time has elapsed since the previous reinforcer, provided the correct response has been made.

58
Q

Variable-interval schedule

A

When reinforcement is given after irregular, or variable periods have passed, provided the correct response has been made.

59
Q

Acquisition - operant

A

The establishment of a response through reinforcement.

60
Q

Extinction - operant

A

The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response following consistent non-reinforcement of the response.

61
Q

Spontaneous recovery - operant

A

After the apparent extinction of a conditioned response the organism will once again show the response in the absence of any reinforcement.

62
Q

Stimulus generalisation - operant

A

Occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced.

63
Q

Stimulus discrimination - operant

A

Occurs when an organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced, but does not respond to any other stimulus, even when stimuli are similar.

64
Q

Shaping

A

A procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response, or target behaviour.

65
Q

Token economy

A

A setting in which an individual receives tokens (reinforcers) for desired behaviour.

66
Q

Observational learning

A

Occurs when someone uses observation of a model’s actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions.

67
Q

Social learning theory

A

Emphasises the importance of the environment, or ‘social context’, in which learning occurs.

68
Q

Vicarious conditioning

A

The individual watches a model’s behaviour being either reinforced or punished, and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way, or refrains from the behaviour, as a result of what they have observed.

69
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

Increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced.

70
Q

Vicarious punishment

A

Occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model’s behaviour being punished.

Psychology (7 decks)

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