Learning Flashcards
How can we define learning?
Its when we acquire a skill and master it, by finding a way to utilize it within our lives
What was Ivan Pavlov initially interested in?
Discovered classical conditioning by accident. He was studying dogs and how much saliva they produced, only because of his initial interest in the digestive system
Please explain the following statement: Classical conditioning is also considered associative learning.
In classical conditioning, learning occurs most quickly when the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Unconditioned Stimulus (US) are paired simultaneously. This illustrates associative learning, where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
Explain the concept of classical conditioning, use Pavlov’s dogs as an example make sure you use the terms neutral stimulus (NS), unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).
In Pavlov’s experiments, the dogs salivated each time meat powder was presented to them. The meat powder in this situation was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dogs’ salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR): a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus. Before conditioning, think of the dogs’ stimulus and response like this: Meat powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder (Figure 2). The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response. Prior to conditioning, the dogs did not salivate when they just heard the tone because the tone had no association for the dogs. Quite simply this pairing means: Tone (NS) + Meat Powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate to the tone alone, just as they previously had salivated at the sound of the assistants’ footsteps. The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus is called the conditioned response (CR). In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, they had learned to associate the tone (CS) with being fed, and they began to salivate (CR) in anticipation of food.
Extinction
The process of removing a conditioned association is called extinction. In order to extinguish a conditioned association, we need to break the link between the CS- DOCTOR and the UCS- NEEDLE.
Spontaneous Recovery
the next time the doctor is presented along with the shot, the fear response will return. This is called Spontaneous Recovery, Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge, even after a period of extinction.
Generalization
Stimulus generalization is the tendency for a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. Lets say a child has previously been conditioned to fear doctors and now is forced to take a tour in a science lab. While the child is in the lab they see multiple scientists wearing white lab coats.
Discrimination
If the child sees the doctor is paired with unpleasant events (shots), while the presence of the scientist is associated with neutral or pleasant events, the child will show discrimination. Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Before the term Operant Conditioning came about, it was a concept that had a different name and created by a different person. Please explain
Instrumental conditioning, Edward Thorndike originally studied this concept, At that time, Thorndike called it instrumental conditioning. At the same time that Ivan Pavlov was working with dogs and bells, Thorndike was working with cats and puzzle boxes
Later, the concept and processes of operant conditioning was furthered and really credited to whom?
B.F. Skinner agreed with Thorndike and wanted to study Instrumental Conditioning further. Skinner began to work with Thorndike’s ideas and decided to term this process Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
involuntary response or a reflexive response (UCR) to a particular stimulus(UCS) or event, the learner is passive (DOG NATURALLY SALIVATES, INVOLUNTARY RESPONSE “NATURAL”)
Operant conditioning
the subject’s learned behavior is determined by what follows their behavior (rewards or consequences). (VOLUNTARY RESPONSE
What is a reinforcement/ reinforcer?
They are considered a favorable (pleasant) consequence or reward for a wanted behavior.
Define positive reinforcement
is a type of reward that is given to the subject after they performed the wanted behavior
These lead to positive and favorable outcomes
Define negative reinforcement (is negative reinforcement punishment?)
Negative reinforcement is not punishment, it still creates a pleasant/ positive outcome and the wanted behavior. The word “Negative” means removal of a stimulus to increase a behavior
Define positive punishment
AKA-Punishers or Punishment, Adding unpleasant stimuli (which is why it is called positive) to decrease unwanted behavior.
Define negative punishment. What’s another name for it?
OMISSION TRAINING, The removal (which is why it is called negative) of something pleasant to decrease an unwanted behavior.
Explain continuous reinforcement
This is when a learner receives a reward after every correct answer.
Compare and contrast continuous reinforcement with partial reinforcement. When is it most beneficial for continuous reinforcement to be used rather than partial reinforcement and vice versa?
In order to avoid extinction, (can happen with continuous reinforcement) we use partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules, This means that rewards are given after some responses, but not after every response (like continuous reinforcement), Slower results, Can lead to behaviors that are more resistant to extinction, and reduce the risk that the subject will become satiated
Partial reinforcement: Fixed-ratio
Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses
Partial reinforcement: Fixed-Interval
a specific amount of time passes before the learner receives the positive reinforcement)
Partial reinforcement: Variable-ratio
RANDOM NUMBER OF BEHAVIORS ARE DONE BEFORE THE PERSON GETS POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT (GAMBLING)
Partial reinforcement: Variable- interval
RANDOM TIME PASSES BEFORE THEY RECEIVE THEIR REWARD
Define learned helplessness, and who created this term?
NOT TRYING TO GET OUT OF A NEGATIVE SITUATION BECAUSE THE PAST HAS TAUGHT YOU THAT YOU ARE HELPLESS. Discovered accidentally by Martin Seligman.
What is a cognitive map? Who created this term?
MENTAL MAPS “MAP IN YOUR MIND”, E.C. TOLMAN CREATED THIS TERM
Explain the term latent learning
LEARNING WITHOUT REWARDS
What is E.L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
States that behaviors followed by pleasant or rewarding consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant or punishing consequences are less likely to be repeated.
What are Skinner boxes? How and why were they used?
Skinner studied rats and other animals in operant conditioning chambers (Skinner Boxes)”AVERSIVE CONDITIONING”. In the boxes the animals could either get food rewards or electric shocks. They were used due to the ability to have a controlled environment for greater responses/data.
Define the Premack Principle and create one example
People will be more motivated to perform an activity they don’t like, if they know that they will have a more desirable activity as a reinforcement. “FIRST, THEN.” GRANDMA’S LAW- eat your veggies so you can eat dessert.
Explain what is done in a token economy and for what purpose.
Operant training system: Used in institutions (mental hospitals, jails, classrooms, etc.…)Rewards are given for acceptable/ wanted behaviors. These rewards can be used like money, they can be exchanged for movies, popcorn, weekend passes, test points.
Shaping
We are shaping them (molding them) for one goal behavior (ex. walking) “rewarded each time action is done”
Chaining
Used to create a specific sequence (Chain) of behaviors. (CHAIN OF EVENTS, HAVE TO DO THIS IN A SPECIFIC ORDER) “rewarded after all steps are completed”
Explain the contiguity theory (Ivan Pavlov) and compare it to the contingency theory (Robert Rescorla). How did Rescorla challenge Pavlov’s contiguity theory?
CONTIGUITY- CS FIRST AND THEN UCS RIGHT AFTER (TIMING)
CONTINGENCY- WE MUST USE THE SAME CS IN ORDER FOR THAT SAME UCS
Define the Blocking Effect according to Leon Kamin
DISAGREEING WITH PAVLOV, AN ORGANISM CAN ONLY BE CONDITIONED TO ONE PARTICULAR STIMULI, MULTIPLE STIMULI WOULD BE BLOCKED.
Explain Insight according to Wolfgang Kohler, his usage of chimps and a term more commonly used to describe insight.
The sudden appearance of an answer (or solution) to a problem ”AHA MOMENT”. Wolfgang Kohler felt that animals can learn without forms of conditioning. He exposed chimps to new learning tasks and concluded that they learn by insight.
Define Observational learning according to Albert Bandura. Who was he proving to be wrong at the time?
The ability to learn through watching, observing and imitating. Albert Bandura was trying to prove Skinner wrong. VIOLENCE BREEDS VIOLENCE. AGGRESSION BREEDS AGGRESSION.
Explain how Albert Bandura’s “Bobo Doll Experiment,” taught society very important lessons about what children should be watching (Observational Learning)
Albert Bandura’s experiment taught society that children who watched violence resulted in the children being violent/even more violent than what was shown.
Explain a conditioned taste aversion
An intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of an association made with this particular food. This association was most likely caused by an unpleasant or painful stimulus (stomach virus or food poisoning).
How did John Garcia create conditioned taste aversions in rats (“The Garcia Effect”)?
He fed flavored water (a previously neutral stimulus) to lab rats. Several hours later, the rats were injected with a substance (the UCS) that made them ill. Later, when the rats were offered the flavored water, they refused to drink it.
Define the term Biological Preparedness.
has allowed animals that are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species, NATURAL SELECTION.Phobias, Conditioned Taste Aversions
Are conditioned taste aversions a way for organisms to be more biologically prepared? Explain your answer
According to some psychologists, conditioned taste aversions are probably adaptive responses of organisms to foods that make them sick or may even kill them. Evolutionarily, successful organisms are biologically predisposed to associate illness with bitter and sour foods(SUPERTASTERS)
Define what it means for an animal to display instinctive drift
“THEY DRIFT TOWARDS THEIR NATURAL INSTINCTS, AWAY FROM CONDITIONING”, Conditioned animals may fail to behave as expected (especially wild species of animals).
Little Albert Experiment, Classical Conditioning, John B. Watson: Can you identify the;
NS (Neutral Stimulus): white rat
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): loud banging noise
UCR (Unconditioned Response): crying (fear)
CS(Conditioned Stimulus): white rat
CR (Conditioned Response):cries (fear)
NS=CS UCR=CR
Acquisition
Acquiring a fear (Phobias), At this point, what would Ivan Pavlov identify the doctor as?
NS-DOCTOR, UCS-THE SHOT , UCR-, CS-DOCTOR or CR-? Why?
Formulate a reason of how then, was the fear acquired?
Spontaneous recovery refers to: Reappearance of a previously extinguished CR(CONDITIONED RESPONSE) after a rest period (AFTER A DOCTOR PRESENTS YOU WITH A SHOT AFTER A LONG TIME, FEAR RETURNS)However, if the learner stops receiving the reward, the wanted behavior tends to end this a form of Extinction
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT:
BOTH HAVE PLEASANT(POSITIVE) OUTCOMES
Maze learning
one of the earliest forms of operant conditioning studied by B.F. Skinner
