Cognition Flashcards
Memory
Capacity to register, store and recover information over time
Cognition
The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
Name some factors that may affect memory
our attention, age, diseases, state of consciousness, alcohol NEED TO MAKE IT MEANINGFUL
State the three main basic steps to creating memories
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
encoding
When sensory information first enters into our memory system, it needs to be changed into a form that the system can work with and store.
Acoustic encoding, Visual encoding and Semantic encoding
Acoustic: the encoding of sounds
Visual: the encoding of images
Semantic: the encoding of meaning “WORDS”
Where do we store information (memories) within the brain (Karl Lashley and Wilder Penfield)?
Karl Lashley and Wilder Penfield(neurologists, 1950-1960s) determined that long-term memories are stored throughout the brain. After consolidation, LTMs are stored throughout the brain as groups of neurons that fire together in the same pattern that created the original experience, and each component of a memory is stored in the brain area that initiated it. EX: groups of neurons in the visual cortex store a sight, neurons in the amygdala store the associated emotion, etc).
Define the term retrieval (recall and recognition)
Recall- LTM, “digging for information”
Recognition- occurs almost immediately
Where do we retrieve information from?
LONG TERM MEMORY
Explain each of the subgroups of long-term memories.
Explicit Memory: The conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information. OTHER SUBCATEGORIES-Episodic: a specific event we are present for Semantic: General world knowledge, facts
Implicit Memory: Things that we don’t purposely try to remember are stored in implicit memory. This kind of memory is both unconscious and unintentional. It is also known as nondeclarative memory, since you are not able to consciously bring it into awareness. CATEGORY OF IMPLICIT-Procedural: These types of memories allow us to perform specific tasks like tying our shoes, swinging a baseball bat or making toast, we do not have to consciously recall how to perform these tasks. (SKILLS/TASKS)
Explain the Atkinson-Shiffrin three stage model of memory.
Sensory memory, Short-term memory (STM), Long-term memory (LTM)
Levels of processing level
How long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded. Depth refers to the attention, focus, elaboration, and emphasis on a particular memory.
Shallow processing
Encoding on a basic level based on the structure of appearance. Shallow processing usually only results in the short term retention of the information, Little attention to meaning. “MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL” EX: FLASHCARDS
Deep Processing
Occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories. “ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL”
Explain the transfer appropriate processing model.
Memory performance is better when the cognitive processes engaged during retrieval (LTM)match the cognitive processes that were engaged when the material was encoded.
Define the Parallel distributed processing model. Give an example.
Parallel processing allows people to make such observations quickly, rather than analyzing each part of the object or situation separately. For example, when a person looks at a firetruck, they will see the red color, fire hose, and logo all at once to quickly recognize it for what it is.
Explain sensory memory.
Is a mental representation of how environmental events look, sound, feel, smell and taste. It includes a long-term component useful for such activities as recognizing a color or a familiar voice. However, most vivid details of sensory memory seem to fade quickly.
Sensory memory
Duration: less than one second. Capacity: tremendous amount of space
Short term memory (STM)
Duration: 18-30 seconds. Capacity: 7+-2, MAGIC NUMBER
Long term memory (LTM)
LTM- Duration- lifetime. Capacity- “unlimited”
Elaborative Rehearsal
involves thinking about how new material relates to already known information. This requires thinking about semantic codes, which is much more effective in forming lasting memories.
Maintenance rehearsal
simply repeating information over and over without thinking about it,or making it meaningful is not very effective in forming lasting memories.
Chunking(effective)
Process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units. EX: PHONE NUMBERS
Dual Coding Theory
Suggests that human cognition is divided into two processing systems: visual and verbal. The visual system deals with graphical information processing and the verbal system deals with linguistic processing. These two systems are separate and are activated by different information.
In terms of the Serial position effect, explain recall in terms of the primacy and recency effect
Items found at the end of the list that are learned most recently are recalled best (the recency effect), while the first few items are also recalled better than those found in the middle (the primacy effect).
Anterograde Amnesia
Occurs when a person experiences the full or partial loss of memory, injury or trauma can create problems with various brain functions
Retrograde Amnesia
Cannot remember things that happened before the event that caused their amnesia. RETRO=THE PAST
Define retrieval (memory) cues.
Retrieval cues prime our memories. Priming is activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously
Encoding Specificity Principle
memories are linked to the context in which they are created. It states that it’s easier to recall information when you are in the same context in which you memorized or studied it
Context dependent memory
Easier recall of information while in the same “context” of the environment in which it was acquired.
State dependent memory
Memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when they formed the memory. Example: Information encoded in a caffeine induced state is best received later in that same state
Mood congruency effect
We tend to recall experiences that are consistent with our current moods. Example: If you are happy, you might remember more of your happier experiences in life, and the opposite is true as well
Relate the semantic memory network to the spreading activation (connectionism) theory
Proposes that semantic concepts or memories (e.g., bear) are represented as nodes within a larger conceptual network (e.g., animals). The nodes in the conceptual network are interconnected through bidirectional associative links.
The tip of tongue phenomenon and feeling of knowing experience are both types of what?
INCOMPLETE KNOWLEDGE: If you remember some features of a concept but still are unable to retrieve others
Explain schemas and state the several types of schemas.
Schemas (mental constructs/ representations)- These are ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, events, based on past experiences (a form of bias)”CONSTRUCTING MEMORIES”.
There are seven types of schemas: social, person, self, event, object, role, and prototype. 1. Scripts are knowledge of how specific events unfold (how a baseball game is played) 2. Person schemas contain beliefs and ideas about people you know (your knowledge of how your teacher would react when you don’t turn in a project) 3. A self-schema represents your knowledge and beliefs about your own traits, ambitions and abilities
Why would controversy occur around repressed memories and how does this relate to false memories?
Repressed memories may be recalled at specific times, because they may have finally encountered the correct retrieval cues. DEEP IN OUR SUBCONSCIOUS MIND/LTM. Controversy occurs around repressed memories because repressed memories can be memories that are not true, this relates to false memories because they can happen when our brain needs to fill in information that was forgotten.
Create an example of a flashbulb memory.
vivid memory of an emotionally charged moment or event. Traumatic Events, Shocking Events or having a personal and/or communal impact, such as the birth of your child, or a car crash.
Hermann Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve, explain his method of savings and the results of his experiments
The method of savings:He recorded the difference between the number of repetitions needed to learn a list of CVCs and the number of repetitions needed to relearn it (after a period of time) “DID THIS EXPERIMENT ON HIMSELF”
Ebbinghaus found that savings declines (forgetting increases) as time passes
The shape of the forgetting curve for nonsense syllables is similar to forgetting anything else (CURVE IS TRUE FOR WHATEVER WE ARE LEARNING)
Ebbinghaus found that the most forgetting occurs during the first 9 hrs after learning, especially during the first hour.
Otherwise info goes to your LTM.
Savings in LTM is very long-often decades
Memory of anything from algebra to riding a bike can be retained for decades, you may forget it if you haven’t done it in a while , but it is very easy to relearn the material if you need to.
Compare and contrast proactive and retroactive interference.
Proactive interference- Occurs when old learning interferes with remembering new learning(NEW INFORMATION)Ex: if you already speak Spanish, you may be confused when you try to learn Italian later.
Retroactive interference- Occurs when new learning interferes with the retrieval of older learning. Ex: you may have difficulty skiing (which you have previously done) because you just learned how to snowboard.
Which is more effective, distributed, or massed practice and why?
Memory is better when material is studied a little bit at a time (“distributed”) than when it is studied all at once (“massed”). When it is distributed the information goes to our long memory while massed lies in our short term memory.
Explain the method of loci (Mind Palace) in your own words
Basically involves mentally placing items to be remembered around a familiar location.
Give an example of a mnemonic device.
Mind Palace, the method of loci
What is a cognitive map?
Mental map, map in your mind.
Inductive (informal) reasoning
Specific to general, can be false, no clear solution, led by heuristics “rule of thumb” and based on assumption.
Deductive reasoning
General to specific, uses facts, logically correct, led by algorithms/logic and one specific answer.
Define a heuristic.
Mental shortcuts to simplify and solve most problems, (a general rule of thumb)COMMON SENSE, They do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem, How we tend to make decisions.
Define algorithm.
problem- solving strategy that involves step by step procedures , guarantees a solution to certain problems.
Mental Set
barriers to problem solving that occur when we apply only methods that have worked in the past rather than trying new or different strategies
Example: A child opens the door to a store by pulling on it. He later insists on pulling the door handle of any similar-looking door to open it, and is puzzled that some of them must be pushed instead.
Functional Fixedness
when we are not able to recognize different uses for an object because we are so familiar with its common use. Example 1: If you run out of paint for a child to play with you may not think of allowing them to use toothpaste to serve as the same function as paints
Confirmation bias
experimental bias” tendency to use information that supports our ideas and ignore information that refutes them.
Belief perseverance
tendency to hold onto a belief even after the belief has been discredited
Belief bias
The tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical thinking
results that happen when an individual’s own values, beliefs, prior knowledge affects, or distorts, the reasoning process through the acceptance of invalid arguments or data.
Examples: Evolution, climate changes, UFOs, earth being flat, etc…
Hindsight bias
A tendency to falsely report, after the event that we correctly predicted the event. Ex. The statement, “I knew that was going to happen the whole time”
Overconfidence bias
A tendency to underestimate the extent to which our judgments are wrong EX: drinking and driving
Divergent thinking
“Imagination/DIVERSE” Thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions (creativity)
Convergent thinking
“Logic, COMES TOGETHER ONE SOLUTION” Type of thinking that focuses on coming up with the single, well-established answer to a problem (limits creativity)
What are a language’s two basic elements?
1-Morphology (the way words are formed). Morphology is the study of the smallest meaningful units in speech and writing. Morpheme relates to the smallest unit of meaning. 2-Phonology (basic sounds).
What is grammar?
The system of rules governing the structure and use of a language.
What are phonemes? morphemes?
Phonemes- They are the smallest units of sound in a spoken language. Each spoken language has 30-50 phonemes.
Morphemes- Smallest unit of language that has meaning.
What are the two levels that language can be described at?
Producing language and understanding it are different cognitive acts. Producing language requires going from deep structure to surface structure.Understanding language requires going from surface structure to deep structure
As an infant, when does babbling begin? And when does it become language specific?
Babbling begins at 4 months of age. At about 9-10 months of age babies will start to lose sounds not used in the languages that they hear. Babbling begins to become language specific. Ex: Ma-ma, Da-da.
Define what and when Holophrase and Telegraphic speech are used.
Holophrase- At about 12 months, babies can now use holophrase. Holophrase- one word that conveys a meaning. Example- they may point outside and say go!
Telegraphic- By their 2nd birthday, they begin to use two word sentences known as telegraphic speech. Uses a verb and a noun. Example-Eat cake!
Define overgeneralization/ overregularization.
is a type of cognitive distortion where a person assumes an experience from one event will apply to other events events/application of grammatical rules without making appropriate exceptions.
Recall which parts of the brain allow us to produce speech vs. understand speech?
Broca’s Area:Production of Speech
Functions to help you put words together fluently to speak more than one word at a time, forming complete sentences. Broca’s aphasia is characterized by a lack of fluency of speech, usually with preserved language comprehension. “BROKEN SPEECH”
Wernicke’s Area: Region of the brain that is important for language development
Responsible for the comprehension of speech
If damaged, a disorder o called Wernicke’s aphasia can result
Wernicke’s aphasia-the person is able to speak in phrases that sound fluent, but they lack meaning
A schema can be described as
A)An outer layer of the eye
B)A mental construct
C)A fissure between lobes of the brain
D)An optical illusion
E)A fixed response to a particular stimulus
B)A mental construct
The process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location is a mnemonic device known as
A)The key word method
B)The method of loci
C)The peg word system
D)The link method
E)Chunking
B)The method of loci(loki- location also MEMORY PALACE)
Remembering how to roller skate involves which of the following kinds of memory?
A)Semantic
B)Episodic
C)Priming
D)Procedural
E)Prospective
D)Procedural
Which of the following exemplifies retroactive interference?
1. After suffering a blow to the head, Jean cannot form new memories
2.Elle failed a Spanish test because she studied for her Italian test after studying Spanish
3. Lee cannot remember an important date on the history exam
4. Gene cannot remember his new locker combination, but remembers last years
5.Jodi remembers the first few items on her school supply list, but can’t remember the rest of them
2.Elle failed a Spanish test because she studied for her Italian test after studying Spanish (can’t recall previous information because we learned new information)
A moviegoer who cannot identify the name of a film star remembers the name when a friend reviews a list of stars. This incident illustrates which two concepts in the human memory
A) Rehearsal and chunking
B)The primacy effect and the recency effect
C) Constructive and reconstructive memory
D)The sensory register and STM
E)Recall and Recognition
E)Recall and Recognition
Explain the language argument between nativists and behaviorists.
Nativists(NATURE) – say that we are born with a biological predisposition for language.
Behaviorists(NURTURE) – say that we develop language and create words by imitating the sounds that we hear.
Explain Noam Chomsky’s language acquisition device and his critical period theory
Our brains are prewired for a universal grammar of nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, negotiations and questions. Chomsky argues that human brains have an innate(BORN WITH IT) language acquisition device (LAD). (HAVE TO LEARN FIRST LANGUAGE RIGHT BEFORE WE HIT PUBERTY)
What did BF Skinner say about language acquisition?
On the nurture side of the language acquisition debate is, B.F. Skinner. He believed children learn language by association, reinforcement, and by imitation. Stated that babies merely mimic phonemes(SMALLEST UNIT OF SOUND) around them and get reinforcement for it.
How do interactionists of today’s world feel?
Today, social interactionists agree with both sides. Language acquisition is a combination of nature and nurture. They believe like Chomsky that children are biologically prepared for language, and like Skinner, that the environment can either activate this potential or restrain it.
