Learning

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

Learning is defined by a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.

This can be:
- conscious.
- unconscious.

Question 2

What is habituation?

Answer 2

A simple form of learning in which an individual learns a specific response over the course of repeated/prolonged stimulus.

• An example of this can be exposure therapy.
• E.g., an animal that is scared by loud noises are no longer scared as they grow used to it.

Question 3

What is the working memory model? Who proposed this? Explain the components/main assumptions.

Answer 3

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Replaced short term memory (STM) with working memory.

A system of storage through:
- Central executive: controls the two slave systems; which store to actively use.
- Phonological loop: slave system which stores auditory information.
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad: slave system which stores visual and spatial information.
- Episodic buffer: the combination of different stores to store episodic information.

Each store is best used independently. When two tasks requiring the same component is used at the same time, the task is not completed effectively.

Question 4

Provide an example for each component in the working memory model in use.

Answer 4

Central executive: prioritising which task is important.

Phonological loop: repeating a phone number or sequence to oneself.

Visuo-spatial sketchpad: imagining a map layout.

Episodic buffer: remembering a sequential row of numbers.

Question 5

What supports the working memory model?

Answer 5

Robbins et al. (1996)
- Chess players who would be playing chess (requires the visuo-spatial sketchpad or central executive) completed another task at the same time.
- Tasks involving the same component would perform poorer at chess.
- Tasks using another component would not have an impaired performance in chess.

Question 6

Evaluations about the working memory model.

Answer 6

• Does not include the processing/stores of other senses affecting memory: touch, smell, taste.
• Interactions between components are not made clear.
• The role of attention in memory.

Question 7

What is Engle and Kane’s theory propose? What are their main assumptions?

Answer 7

Engle and Kane (2004) states of individual differences in working memory.
- There are two aspects of attentional control; maintaining task goals, and resolution/completing these tasks.
- Different attentional levels: high and low.
- Higher capacity individuals outperform those with lower levels, even in the low capacity tasks.

Lower capacity individuals are susceptible to external distractions; outdoor noise, a fly in their peripheral vision.

Question 8

Evaluation for Engle and Kane’s theory?

Answer 8

• No reliable measure for attentional control; no fixed amount.
• Emphasises recall/capacity to be an indicator of performance, but other factors could be just as informative; speed.

Question 9

What are the levels of processing? Who is this proposed by?

Answer 9

Craik and Lockhart (1972)
- states that deeper levels of processing = more detailed, longer lasting memory.

processing levels:
- shallow.
- deep.

Question 10

What supports Craik and Lockhart’s theory?

Answer 10

Rose et al. (2015)
- recalling words with shallow processing were remembered less than words with deeper processing.

Question 11

Evaluation of Craik and Lockhart’s (1974) processing theory?

Answer 11

• does not mention the role of retrieval; does retrieving previously learned information contribute to processing?
• shallow and deep processing? what differentiates these measurements?

Question 12

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 12

Classical conditioning is a type of learning which involves exposure of an unconditioned stimulus to gain a specific response (Conditioned Response/CR).

The creation of association between stimulus and developed conditioned response makes a conditioned stimulus.

Question 13

What are the stages of Classical conditioning?

Answer 13

Acquisition: the process of associating CS with NS, to develop CR.

Extinction: When CS is continuously exposed, the CR will begin to weaken over time.

Spontaneous recovery: when extinct behaviour suddenly re-emerges (though usually weaker).

Question 14

How is emotion linked with classical conditioning? Provide example(s) of both real life and experiments.

Answer 14

Fear and anxiety were a result of classical conditioning.

Little Albert (Watson & Raynor, 1920)
- would play a loud noise (UCS) whenever a white rat would appear (CS), resulting in shock and fear (CR) causing a fear of white fluffy things.

Advertisement: using attractive people and happy people in adverts can result in happy emotions being correlated to the product/service.

Funerals/hospitals: correlating the smell or environment to be negative due to past experiences.

Question 15

What factors affect classical conditioning?

Answer 15

Timing: being able to time the presentation of the NS and the UCS around similar times can allow for an association to be made. If done too late, it may take longer to associate two stimuli together.

Consistency: Patterns of consistent behaviour (e.g., associating two stimuli twice a day, at the same time everyday) is better than doing inconsistent behaviour (associating two stimuli 4 times a week, then once, then twice, then none) can result in confusion and take a longer time for an association to develop.

Question 16

What is the difference between explicit and implicit learning? Provide examples of each, and examples to support their differences.

Answer 16

Explicit: direct, conscious learning.
e.g., studying, reading, practicing.
- Happens in the medial temporal lobes.

Implicit: unconscious learning.
e.g., suddenly picking up lyrics to a song after hearing it, recognising patterns, intuition based from previous experience.
- Happens in the striatum.

Amnesiac patients: they have damage to the medial temporal lobes, and result in an impaired performance in explicit memory tasks, but intact implicit memory performance.

Question 17

How is classical conditioning implicit learning?

Answer 17

because it lacks conscious awareness of learning.

Question 18

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 18

A type of learning that involves the consequences of actions (rewards and/or punishments) to develop behaviour.

Rewards: Used to promote a desired behaviour.

Punishment: Used to prevent undesired behaviour in the future.

Question 19

Example of operant conditioning?

Answer 19

Skinner’s box (1930s) (a variation of Thorndike’s box) which involves animals being stuck in a cage an requires them to activate different levers. Their behaviours would be punished or rewarded, which will influence their future actions.

Question 20

What is law of effect?

Answer 20

If the consequence is positive, this increases likelihood of behaviour to be repeated.

If negative, this reduces the behaviour.

Revised: Effect of reward is stronger than the effect of punishment.

Question 21

What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Answer 21

Classical: two stimuli are associated together to gain a conditioned response.

Operant: behaviour is manipulated to gain a particular outcome.

Question 22

What are some daily examples of operant learning?

Answer 22

Chores: doing chores usually involve operant learning, as parents will pay their child or reward them, resulting in children to learn that chores = good.

Punishment in school: in schools, using a warning, or a name on the board, is common punishment to reduce bad behaviour.

Question 23

What is latent learning? Provide an example.

Answer 23

A type of learning without direct reinforcement or active behaviour to indicate such.

Learning is picked up unconsciously and used when the situation requires it.

Tolman (1930) put rats in a maze. one group of rats had a reward when they completed the maze, whilst another group did not.
- the one with the reward at the end learned the maze the fastest.
- the one without would not learn as fast, but when introduced a reward, the rats would be just as fast as the first group.
This shows that the rat group did learn the maze, even if not actively using the skills to do so.

Being driven to school- when driven to school everyday, a child might not pick up on the journey. But when they’re required to walk the way, they still know the way.

Question 24

What is observational learning? Provide examples.

Answer 24

Type of learning that occurs by watching and imitating others.
(Bandura et al., 1961) mimicking violent behaviours to bobo dolls.

For example:
- babies mimicking their parents.
- individuals copying their friends.
- following a tutorial.

Question 25

What is implicit learning?

Answer 25

A type of learning without active consciousness.

Question 26

Evaluation of implicit learning.

Answer 26

• Hard distinction between implicit learning and learning as there is overlap.
• Hard to determine the existence of implicit learning; how can you prove which learning is unconscious? (Shanks, 2017).

Question 27

What is behaviourism?

Answer 27

The belief that learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning: the belief that learning can be manipulated to influence the likelihood of certain behaviour.