Learning Flashcards
What is the process of classical conditioning?
It is the simplest form of associative learning like we associate two stimuli with one another.
-Before conditioning: The unconditional stimulus triggers a reflex response like salivation (which is an unconditional response). The neutral stimulus does not give this response.
-During conditioning: The unconditional stimulus and the neutral stimulus are paired together many times.
-After conditioning: Following the pairing, the neutral stimulus gives the same response as the unconditional stimulus. The neutral stimulus is now the conditioned stimulus and the response is the conditioned response.
What is extinction?
When a conditioned stimulus is experienced without the unconditional stimulus over a period of time, the conditioned response is extinguished. The conditioned stimulus ceases to elicit the conditioned response, making it extinct. It has survival value as it means our learning is flexible and we can adapt.
What is spontaneous recovery?
Extinct response reappears, even without new pairings with the unconditional stimulus. Usually weaker response.
What is stimulus generalisation?
Sometimes we become conditioned to response to one stimulus but we find ourselves exhibiting the same response to other similar stimuli.
Evaluate classical conditioning
2 strengths:
- Research evidence. Pavlov with the salivating dogs to the ring of the bell and Watson and Rayner with Little Albert who experienced fear due to a large noise and cried when presented a white rat.
- Therapeutic applications such as systematic desensitisation and flooding, which are therapies used to help get over phobias.
2 weaknesses:
- The experiments and research cannot be generalised as they were done on dogs and a child and therefore is not a true representation of the wider population.
- It is an incomplete explanation of behaviour and only how behaviours are acquired of simple behaviours but not the maintenance of it.
Explain Pavlov’s experiment (Aims, Procedure, Findings and Conclusion)- 1927
Aims: Initial aim is to learn about the salivation reflex but shifted towards the broad aim of exploring conditioned reflexes (eating behaviours in dogs and how salivation becomes associated with new stimuli unrelated to food)
Procedure: Collecting saliva from the saliva glands of immobilised dogs. This was done in a lab so the amount of saliva can be observed (number of drops). Salivation is the dependent variable. Took place is a sound proof chamber. Food is the unconditional stimulus and salivation is the unconditional response and the buzzer is the neutral response. Usually paired about 20 times.
Findings: The neutral stimulus did elicit a response after it was presented for a couple of seconds, when the dogs were alter and undistracted.
Conclusion: A link is likely made between the unconditional stimulus and the neutral stimulus that occurs just before the unconditional stimulus.
Evaluate Pavlov’s experiment
2 strengths:
- Good experimental controls high internal validity.
- Backed up by other studies like with Watson and Rayner (1920) shows that this does take place in humans
2 weaknesses:
-As they are dogs you cannot generalise this to human and we are much more complex.
-Poor ethics as the dogs had pointless surgeries and therefore this experiment cannot happen today.
Application:
- Helps to understand eating behaviours.
What is operant conditioning?
It is the result of forming a link between a behaviour and an event. Consequence/praise can lead to an increase or decrease of the probability of a behaviour happening.
What is the Skinner box?
Much of our understanding for operant conditioning come from Skinner (1948), an American who’s ideas dominated psychology in the 1940s and 1950s. He carried out research using animal testing what became known as the operant chamber or Skinner box. This contained a supply of food pellets that could be released as reinforcers when the animal learned to do something, for example operate a lever. Some operant chambers also contain electrified floors which could be used to punish behaviour. Using reinforcement and punishment, Skinner and colleagues could train the animals to learn target behaviours.
What is reinforcement?
This is when an event that follows it increases the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Normally this is pleasant consequence, but remember that anything that make a behaviour more likely is reinforcement- this means that escaping from something unpleasant is also reinforcing. The event that leads to the increased likelihood of the behaviour being repeated is called a reinforcer.
Positive reinforcement: takes place when something pleasant is introduced following a behaviour. This might be something like food, money, smile or praise.
Negative reinforcement: takes place when something unpleasant, such as pain, is removed following a behaviour.
What is primary and secondary reinforcement?
Some reinforcers are rewarding because they have biological significance. Like food, drink, shelter, and sex are a primary reinforcement.
However, money or an impressive job title can be just as powerful as reinforcers. This is because they are associated with primary reinforcers like how money can buy us food, these are called secondary reinforcers.
What is punishment?
Punishment takes place when an event following a behaviour makes its repetition less likely. The event that leads to the decrease in likelihood of repeating the behaviour is called a punisher.
Positive punishment: takes place when something unpleasant or aversive is introduced following a behaviour, like a slap.
Negative punishment: takes place when something nice is removed, like being fined or grounded.
Some punisher are deliberately introduced by people in order to change someone’s behaviour - criminal justice system give negative punishers like prison sentences that deprive people of their freedom and labels that take away social status. Other occur naturally like touching something hot, we learn not to touch it again.
Evaluation of Operant condition (strengths)
It is supported by research and studies on animals and humans. For example, Skinner did multiple experiments of animals like rats and pigeons where they would be shocked for doing incorrect behaviour. There are consistent finding regarding the ability to modify behaviour using reinforcement and punishment. In addition modern brain studies have revealed brain systems (neural correlates) that relate to reinforcement in humans (Chase et al. 2015)
It seems to be generalisable as they are able to improve the behaviours of prisoners according to Hobbs and Holt- 1976 (Token economy programme)
Evaluation of operant conditioning (weakness)
It only explains how behaviours are weakened or strengthened, but not how they originate. It can explain much wider range of behaviours that classical conditioning and includes complex behaviour chains. Too simplistic
It ignores the nature side as some people might have a predisposition who don’t react to rewards.
Application of operant conditioning
It is used in a range of places including schools, nurseries and other settings involving children. For example, giving a child a gold star for good work encourages them to repeat the good work. Parents often use star charts or food treats to reinforce desirable behaviours.
What is continuous and partial reinforcement?
A behaviour that is said to be continuously reinforced when the reinforcer always follow the behaviour. For example, we might pay a child every time they do the washing up. Continuous reinforcement leads to rapid change of behaviour but the effects tend not to last. This is why children are paid regularly for household tasks do not usually stick to them for long.
Alternative is partial reinforcement. Here reinforcement is irregular. In a reinforcement schedule with can either vary in the ratio (how many times) or interval (how long between).
What is fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?
A reinforcer is given after a specified number of behaviours, for example pay a child every seventh time they do the washing up.
What is variable ratio reinforcement?
A reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of behaviours that varies around the mean. A child on a variable ration of 3 (VR3) may therefore get paid after 1,3 or 5 instances of doing the washing up (1+3+5=9/3=3). This leads to behaviours changes that are difficult to extinguish.
