LE2 Flashcards
Activities or phenomena that occur on the Earth’s surface.
Exogenic Processes
The _______ is an ever-changing sphere shaped by forces operating both within and upon its surface.
Earth
It is the detachment of earth material from the surface of the earth.
Erosion
It is a dynamic process and includes the transportation of disintegrated rock materials away from their origin.
Erosion
Changes the shape of coastlines.
Erosion by Water
Waves constantly crash against shores.
Erosion by Water
They pound rocks into pebbles and reduce pebbles to sand.
Erosion by Water
Water sometimes takes sand away from beaches. This moves the coastline farther inland.
Erosion by Water
It carries dust, sand, and volcanic ashes from one place to another.
Erosion by Wind
_________ can sometimes blow sand into towering dunes.
Wind
__________ can erode the land.
Erosion by Ice
In frigid areas and on some mountaintops, glaciers move slowly downhill and across the land. As they move, they pick up everything in their path, from tiny grains of sand to huge boulders.
Erosion by Ice
It is defined as loosening and breaking of rock masses by the pressure of glacial ice.
Glacial Plucking
Glacial Plucking is also called ________.
Glacial Quarrying.
It is the rubbing, scratching, grooving and polishing action of the glaciers on the rock surface along or over which these ice masses happen to move.
Glacial Abrasion
_________ pulls any loose bits down the side of a hill or mountain.
Gravity
When rocks break down over time because of things like rain, wind, and even plants growing in cracks.
Weathering
It’s like nature’s way of slowly wearing away at rocks, turning them into smaller pieces.
Weathering
Refers to the process of breaking down rocks into smaller fragments without changing their chemical composition.
Physical Weathering
It occurs through physical forces and processes that cause rocks to fracture or disintegrate into smaller pieces.
Physical Weathering
It occurs in cold climates where temperatures frequently fluctuate above and below freezing.
Ice Wedging
It occurs when rocks are porous or permeable.
Freeze-thaw weathering
It is also known as exfoliation, occurs when overlying material is removed from a rock’s surface.
Release of Pressure
It is the roots grow into cracks and push rocks apart.
Growth of Plants
It burrow and push apart rocks.
Animals
It is the process by which rocks and minerals are broken down and altered through chemical reactions with water, gases, and other substances in the environment.
Chemical Weathering
It is the process where sediment, soil, or rock particles that have been transported by erosional agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity are deposited or laid down in a new location.
Deposition / Sedimentation
It is the opposite of erosion, where materials are removed from one area.
Deposition / Sedimentation
It can freeze sediment and then deposit it elsewhere as the ice carves its way through the landscape or melts.
Glaciers
Sediment created and deposited by glaciers is called ________.
Moraine
__________ are made of rocky sediment worn down by wind and collision with other sand particles.
Sand Dunes
It is a type of mass wasting that results in the sliding of coherent rock materials along a curved surface.
Slump
It is the slow downhill flow of soil.
Solifluction
Release of Pressure is also known as _________.
Exfoliation
_________ dissolves rock chemically
Water
It is the process of oxidation. Rocks with iron mixes with oxygen, rusts.
Oxygen
It is the acids from plants and roots chemically weather rocks.
Living Organisms
It can move dirt across a plain in dust storms or sandstorms.
Wind
It is the movement of rock and soil downward due to gravity.
Mass Wasting
A downward viscous flow of fine-grained materials that have been saturated by water and moves under the pull of gravity
Earthflow
It is a mud travels down a slope very quickly.
Mudflow
It is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of rocks, soil, and debris mixed with water or ice.
Debris Slide
It is a moving mass of loose mud, sand, soil, rock, water, and air that travels down a slope under the influence of gravity.
Debris Flow
It occurs when pieces of rocks break loose from a steep rock face or cliff.
Rock Flow
A slow, gradual movement of soil downhill over time.
Soil Creep
It is an internal geomorphic process.
Endogenic Processes
This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
Endogenic Processes
This energy due to geothermal gradients and heat flow from within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere.
Endogenic Processes
It is when two forces push towards each other from opposite sides, the rock layers will bend into folds.
Folding
It is fracturing and displacement of more brittle rocks strata along a fault plan. The process of forming a fault.
Faulting
The beak in a rock along which a vertical or horizontal rock movement has occurred.
Fault
The line of fault is referred as the _________.
Fault Line
It is a volcanic activity or igneous activity. Eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of the Earth.
Volcanism
It occurs when there is pressure and heat applied to geologic structures which leads to the formation of metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism
It is a seismic activity. A sudden shaking or vibration on the Earth’s crust.
Earthquake
_________ are powerful and dynamic geological agents. The water flowing through a stream performs three kinds of geologic works as erosion, transportation and deposition.
Rivers
The longest river in the world with a span of 6,650 km.
Nile River
The longest river in the Philippines with a span of 505 km.
Cagayan River
The second longest river with a span of *6,400 km. *
Amazon
He is the Scottish Geologist and mathematician, proposed that a river carve its own valley.
John Playfair
This law indicates how deep valleys and landforms have been formed.
Playfair’s Law
The rivers transport sediment, ranging from fine silt to large boulders, from one place to another.
Transportation
This movement of material helps shape the river’s course and the surrounding landscape.
Transportation
Rivers erode the land they flow over, gradually wearing away rock and soil to create valleys and other landforms.
Erosion
The force of the water, combined with the sediment it carries, acts like sandpaper, grinding down the riverbed and banks.
Erosion
When the river loses energy, it deposits the sediment it has been carrying.
Deposition
This process can create various landforms, such as deltas, floodplains, and alluvial fans, contributing to the ongoing transformation of the landscape.
Deposition
The movement of air over the surface of the earth is called _________.
Wind
Wind deposits are also called _________.
Aeolian Deposits
It is the act of removing the loose particles of the earth from one area and forming depression.
Deflation
By this process of removing the sand to the groundwater level, _________ is formed in the desserts.
Oasis
It is the process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against formations like understanding rock and eroding them.
Abrasion
This reduction of velocity forces deposition of the particles the wind is carrying, and they form typical Aeolian deposits.
Deposition
It is a heap of sand conical in cross section with a gentle slope on the windward side and a steeper slope on the leeward side.
Sand Dunes
Understand wind-driven processes and their effects in erosion, deposition, and transportation because they may impose significant challenges to infrastructure stability and land use suitability.
Site Evaluation
Wind-blown sand and dust can accumulate around structures, affecting foundation stability and structural integrity. Engineers must consider wind-induced soil movement and sedimentation when designing foundations, retaining walls, and other geotechnical structures in windy environments.
Foundation Design
It is generally used for saline water bodies surrounded by landforms and also water bodies of shallower depth less than 4 km.
Sea
It is the waves created by the winds.
Sea Waves
________ are waves which only goes up and down.
Oscillatory Waves
The word _________ means pertaining to the shoreline.
Littoral
The movement of water up to the coast when the waves break is called _________.
Swash
The return of water back into the sea is called _________.
Backwash
The word littoral means pertaining to the shoreline.
Littoral Currents
The cracks in the cliff are filled with waves and its sudden release during the retreat of waves causes the material around the cracks to break up.
Hydraulic Action
These are massive structures built along the coast.
Seawalls
These are made of steel, concrete, or timber piles and they are used where the impact of waves are not very large.
Bulkheads
Understanding coastal processes and dynamics is crucial for coastal engineering projects, including shoreline protection, beach nourishment, and coastal infrastructure design.
Coastal Engineering
Marine geologists and engineers study seabed geology, sediment transport, and oceanography to assess resource potential, plan extraction operations, and minimize environmental impacts.
Marine Resources Management
This deals with study of minerals.
Mineralogy
It deals with the detailed mode of formation, composition, occurrence, types, association properties, etc.
Mineralogy
It is a naturally-occurring, homogeneous, solid with a definite but generally not fixed, chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement.
Mineral/s
It is usually formed by inorganic processes.
Mineralogy
The ________ represents the common node of occurrence of a mineral in nature.
Form
It is also called Habit or Structure of minerals.
Form and Habits
To come extent this is the function of the atomic structure of minerals.
Form and Habits
Minerals appear as Thin Separable Layer
- Mica
Lamellar Form
Minerals appears slab of uniform Thickness.
- Feldspar
Tabular Form
Minerals appear to be made of small spherical grain.
- Bauxite
Pisolitic Form
Minerals appear to be made of still small spherical grain.
- Limestone
Oolitic Form
Minerals appear to be made of innumerable equidimensional grain of coarse or medium of grain.
- Magnetite, Chromite
Granular Form
Minerals appear as a cluster or independent lath shaped grains.
- Kyanite
Bladed Form
Minerals appears as made up of smaller curved faces like bunch of grapes
- Hematite, Chalcedony
Botryoidal Form
Minerals appear as made up of thin needles.
- Natrolite, Actinolite
Acicular Form
Minerals appears as long slender prism.
Columnar Form
Minerals appear as elongated independent crystals.
- Quartz, Apatite
Prismastic Form
Minerals appear as porous.
- Pyrolusite, pumice
Spongy Form
Minerals appear as Polyhedral Geometric Shapes.
- Amethyst, Pyrite, Galena
Crystal Form
No definite shape of minerals.
- Graphite, olivine, jasper
Massive Form
Irregular shaped compacted bofy with curved surface.
- Flint
Nodular Form
It is due to composition.
Color
Are minerals that process inherent color due to their chemical composition.
Idiochromatic Minerals
Copper (Cu) is the chromophore, giving malachite its characteristic green color.
Malachite (Green)
Copper (Cu) is again chromophore, but in a different chemical environment within the azurite structure, leading to a blue color.
Azurite (Blue)
Mercury (Hg) is the chromophore, imparting vivid red color to cinnabar.
Cinnaber (Red)
These are minerals that display a variety of colors due to the presence of impurities or imperfections within their crystal structure, rather than their inherent chemical composition.
Allochromatic Minerals
Minerals rich in AI, Ca, Na, Mg are often __________.
Light Colored
Minerals rich in Fe, Ti, Ni, Cr are often ________.
Dark Colored
It reflects all components of white light.
White Minerals
It absorbs all components of white light.
Black Minerals
It reflects green light and absorb the others.
Green Minerals
It is defined as the color of a mineral’s powder obtained by rubbing a mineral specimen on an unglazed white porcelain tile.
Streak
It is defined as the way in which mineral reflects light and it is controlled by atomic structure of the minerals.
Luster
It is the nature of shining on the surface of minerals
Luster
Based on quality or type of shining, ________ are grouped as metallic and non-metallic.
Luster
It is useful in identifying metallic ore materials.
Streak
It is a type of shining appears on the surface of metals.
Metallic Luster
The amount of shining is less compared to metallic luster.
Sub-Metallic Luster
The non-metallic minerals shining like a silk.
Silky Luster
The non-metallic minerals shining like a Resin.
Resinous Luster
The non-metallic shining like a diamond.
Adamantine Luster
The non-metallic minerals shining like Earth or Chalk.
Earthy or Dull Luster
It is defined as the tendency of minerals to beak along a flat surface or to break unevenly along a cured surface of irregular surface.
Fracture
It is a mineral property where the atomic bonding between atoms in crystal structure is perfect with no weakness.
Fracture
When these materials are stressed they shatter making no two pieces truly the same.
Fracture
It is the uneven breakage of minerals.
Fracture
Define as the broken surface of the minerals is plain and smooth.
Even Fracture
It is defined as the broken surface of the minerals is rough or irregular.
Uneven Fracture
It is defined as the broken surface of minerals are very irregular like broken stick.
Hackly Fracture
It is define as the broken surface of the minerals is smooth and curved surface.
Conchoidal Fracture
It is defied as the resistance offered by minerals to abrasion or scratching.
Hardness
It is also related to atomic structure of minerals.
Hardness
The _________ of mineral appear to have a less influence over hardness.
Chemical Composition
The _________ of unknown minerals is determined by scratching it with the minerals of Mohs scale of hardness, starting with the talc and followed by minerals.
Relative Hardness
It is a qualitative ordinal scale that characterizes the scratch resistance of different minerals through the ability of hardness material to scratch a softer material.
Mohs Scale of Hardness
The German geologist and mineralogist who created Mohs Scale of Hardness in year 1812 and is one of several material science definitions of hardness.
Friedrich Mohs
It is the ratio of the mass of substance to the mass of a reference substance for the same given volume.
Specific Gravity (Density)
_________ of minerals depends on their chemical composition and aotmic structure.
Specific Gravity (Density)
_________ of minerals is determined by using either Walker’s steel yard or Jolly’s spring.
Specific Gravity (Density)
4.5 – 6.0
Sulfides
8.0
Iron Metal
13.0
Lead
19.0 – 22.0
Gold and Platinum
The resistant offered by materials to the passage of light through them.
Degree of Transparency
_________ depends on chemical composition.
Degree of Transparency
It mainly depends on thickness.
Degree of Transparency
Light is able to pass through _________ minerals.
Transparent
_________ minerals partially let light pass through.
Translucent
_________ minerals do not let any light through.
Opaque
It is very soft. (h = 1)
Talc
It exhibits smooth touch or soapy feel.
Talc
It is low hardness. (h = 1)
Graphite
It exhibits black color. Marks easily on paper.
Graphite
It gives garlic smell. When struck or heated and freshly broken surface.
Realgar
It gives a clayey smell and adheres strongly to tongue.
Kaolin
It has saline taste.
Halite
petro = _________
logy = _________
Rock
Study
It is the scientific study of rocks that deals with their composition, texture, and structure; their occurrence and distribution; and their origin in relation to physicochemical conditions and geologic processes.
Petrology
It concerned with all three major types of rocks – igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
Petrology
It is the most important branch of geology from civil engineering point of view.
Petrology
It involves the laboratory synthesis of rocks for the purpose of ascertaining the physical and chemical conditions under which rock formation occurs.
Petrogeny
It deals with the mode of formation of rocks.
Petrogeny
It is the study of rocks in thin section by means of petrographic microscope (i.e., an instrument that employs polarized light that vibrates in a single plane0.
Petrography
It is primarily concerned with the systematic classification and precise description of rocks.
Petrography
It deals with descriptive part of rocks.
Petrography
_________ relies heavily on the principles and methods of mineralogy because most rocks consist of minerals and are formed under the same conditions.
Petrology
These are the primary rocks, which are formed due to cooling and solidification of magma.
Igneous Rocks
It is from the latin word _________, meaning “fire”.
Ignis
It is a hot vicious, siliceous melt, containing water vapor and gases.
Magma
When magma comes out from the greater depth below the earth surface, such as magma is called _________.
Lava
Are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of a planet, surrounded by pre-existing rock.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
The magma cools slowly and, as a result, these rocks are coarse-grained.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identifies with the naked eye.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
These are formed at intermediate depth generally up to 2 km below the earth surface and exhibits mixed characteristics of volcanics and plutonic.
Hypabyssal Rocks
These are formed at considerable depth generally up to 7-10 km below the earth surface.
Plutonic Rocks
Because of very slow rate of cooling at these depth coarse grained rocks are formed.
Plutonic Rocks
It is also called as volcanic rocks.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
These rocks are formed due to cooling and solidification of magma at the crust surface.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
The magma, which is brought to the surface through fissured or volcanic eruptions, solidifies at a faster rate. Hence, such rocks are smooth, crystalline and fine-grained.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
These are formed due to cooling and solidification of lava erupted from volcanoes. Since lava cools down at very fast rate, the grain size of the crystal formed in these rocks is fine.
Volcanic Rocks
_________ are those, which are formed by the accumulation, compaction and consolidation of sediments.
Sedimentary Rocks
The sediments are the particles produces from disintegration of pre-existing rocks (igneous/metamorphic rocks)through the process of transportation and deposition by various natural agents like wind, water and glaciers.
Sedimentary Rocks
It is when eroded sediments end up in the water begin to settle.
Sedimentation
With time, more layers pile up and presses down the lower layers
Compaction
It is when salt crystal glue the layers together
Cementation
They are
mechanically formed rocks.
Clastic Deposit Rocks
These are
formed due to the process of
weathering, erosion, transportation and
deposition of pre-existing rocks.
Clastic Deposit Rocks
If the grain size are more than 2mm in diameter.
Rudaceous Rocks
If the grain size is in between 1 and 2mm.
Arenaceous Rocks
If the size of the particle is < 1mm in diameter.
Argillaceous Rocks
Clastic Deposit Rocks (Rudaceous Rocks) example
Conglomerate and Breccia
Clastic Deposit Rocks (Arenaceous Rocks) example
Quart Sandstone and Grit
Clastic Deposit Rocks (Argillaceous Rocks) example
Shale and Mudstone
They are formed by precipitation, evaporation or crystallization from natural aqueous solution.
When water is rich in dissolved salt
evaporates and left behind minerals
(Halite).
Chemical Deposit Rock
_________ can form when calcite
minerals dissolved in lakes, sea and
underground water comes out of
solution and form crystal.
Limestone
They are formed exclusively from remains of organisms like plant/animals deposited in a thick layer.
Organic Deposit Rock
These are rocks that are formed as a result of transformation that takes place in pre-existing rocks (igneous/sedimentary
rocks).
Metamorphic Rocks
When the pre-existing rocks are subjected to higher temperature,
pressure and chemically active liquids and gases, the minerals present in the
original rocks changes to new environmental condition.
Metamorphic Rocks
Meta = _________
Morph = _________
Change
Form
_________ means to change form.
Metamorphism
When the pressure squeezes the flat or elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned.
Foliated
These rocks develop a platy or sheet-like structure that reflects the direction that pressure was applied in.
– Slate and
Schist
Foliated
The metamorphic rocks are formed around igneous intrusions where the temperatures are high but the pressures are relatively low and equal in all directions. – Marble
Non-Foliated
It is usually said to begin with a hot molten liquid rock called magma or lava
The Rock Cycle
It is rocked’ physical and chemical breakdown into smaller fragments, and erosion removes those fragments from their original location.
Weathering
It is a water that has infiltrated
the ground to fill the spaces between
sediments and cracks in rock.
Groundwater
It is recharged by precipitation,
snowmelt, or water seepage from other
sources, including irrigation and leaks
from water supply systems.
Groundwater
Existing _________ can be discharged
through springs, lakes, rivers, streams, or
manmade wells.
Groundwater
These are formed where the water table naturally meets the land surface, causing groundwater to flow from the surface and eventually into a stream, river, or lake.
Springs
To ensure a continuous supply of water, a _________ must penetrate below the water table; too much pumping of _________ can cause drawdown (lowering of the water table permanently)
Well
It is a stagnant water body and does not empty into any other water body.
Lake
It is a flowing water body that ends up in a sea or an ocean, connects to a larger water body; a natural flow of running water that follows a well-defined, permanent path, usually within a valley.
Rivers
It is also called a brook
or a creek.
Spring
It is a natural flow of water that follows a more temporary path that is usually not in a valley
Spring
It is an underground boundary between the soil surface and the area where groundwater saturates spaces between sediments and cracks in rock.
Water Table
The soil surface above the water table is called the _________, where both oxygen and water fill the spaces between sediments.
Unsaturated Zone
The unsaturated zone is also called the zone of _________.
Aeration
Water found in this zone of aeration is called _________, and is distinct from groundwater.
Soil Moisture
Underneath the water table is the __________, where water fills all spaces between sediments.
Saturated Zone
The __________ is bounded at the bottom by impenetrable rock.
Saturated Zone
The water derived from precipitation (rain and snow) although bulk of the rainwater or melt water from snow and ice reaches the sea through the surface flows or runoffs a considerable part of precipitation gradually infiltrates into ground water.
Almost entire water obtained from ground water supplies belongs to this category
Meteoric Water
This infiltrated water continuous its downward journey till it reaches the zone of saturation to become the ground water in the aquifer.
Meteoric Water
Groundwater is contained and flows
through bodies of rock and sediment
called _________.
Aquifer
Fluctuations in the water table level are caused by _________ between seasons and years.
Changes in Precipitation
Incomplete
compaction may cause retention of
some water by these rocks which is
known as the _________.
Connote Water
The water that is present in the rocks right from the time of their deposition aqueous environment
Connote Water
It is also called magmatic water and is of only theoretical importance as far as water supply scheme is concerned.
Juvenile Water
It is the water found in the cracks or crevices or pores of rocks due to condensation of steam emanating from hot molten masses or magmas existing below the surface.
Juvenile Water
Some hot springs and geysers are clearly derived from juvenile water.
Juvenile Water
Occurs when the rate of groundwater extraction through wells is higher than the rate of replenishment from precipitation.
Groundwater Depletion
Ground sinks when water is pumped from wells faster than natural recharge processes can replace it
Subsidence
A common problem in coastal areas where excessive groundwater withdrawal causes saltwater to be drawn into wells, thus contaminating the freshwater supply.
Saltwater Contamination
All earth materials from soils to rocks
have pore spaces.
Saturated Formation
It is a saturated formation of earth material which not only stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity.
Aquifer
It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the yield is insignificant compared to an aquifer.
Aquitard
It is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to the flow of water.
Aquiclude
The amount of time that groundwater remains in aquifers is called its __________, which can vary widely, from a few days or weeks to 10 thousand years or more.
Residence Time
It is the one in which water table forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation.
Unconfined Aquifer
An aquifer where the water table is the upper surface limit and extends below till the impermeable rock strata is called the unconfined aquifer.
Unconfined Aquifer
An aquifer that is sandwiched between two impermeable layers, it is known as a _________.
Confined Aquifer
It is also known as a pressure aquifer, or an artesian aquifer.
Confined Aquifer
These are are completely filled with water, and they do not have a free water table and the aquifer will be under pressure
Confined Aquifer
Confined aquifer i also known as _________.
Pressure aquifer
or
Artesian aquifer
It is a special type of an unconfined aquifer.
Perched Aquifer
An impermeable saucershaped stratum of a small aerial extent occurring in the zone of aeration may retain and hold some amount of water is called _________.
Perched Aquifer
_________ is an example of aquiclude.
Clay
Like surface waters, is also a very powerful natural agent responsible not only for modifying the existing features but also for creating many other geological features on and below the surface of the earth.
Ground Water
A typical terrain, in which the surface and subsurface features in general and relief and drainage in particular are related directly to the solvent action of groundwater
The Karst Topography
A centripetal drainage in which streams from different directions flow towards common central basin.
The Karst Topography
Where the solution forms are exposed on the surface.
Bare Karst
Where the rocks bearing features of solvent action are present under a thin cover of insoluble rock.
Covered Karst
Where the cover over the affected rocks is quite thick.
Subjacent Karst
These are also termed as swallow holes, sink holes and sometimes simply as sinks.
Dolines
A typical _________ is a circular or oval depression, which when followed in depth becomes bowl-shaped or cylindrical in cross section.
Dolines
Measuring 660m deep, with a volume of 130 million cubic meters, China’s _________ is both the deepest and largest sinkhole in the world.
Xiaoxhai Tiankeng
It was only “discovered” by the outside world in 1994, and experts still aren’t sure how it formed.
Xiaoxhai Tiankeng
These may be defined as naturally carved out underground cavities of various dimensions that always have horizontal openings on the surface.
Caves
They are similar to tunnels with the exception that a _________ does not normally have an exit whereas a tunnel has an entry on one end and an exit on the other end.
Caves
These are formed due to pronounced and prolong solvent action of groundwater on the subsurface rocks.
Caves
The most famous cave of the world, the _________, is more than 250 km in aggregate
length.
Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, United
States
It consists of more than 200 chambers clustered together.
Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, United
States
These are typical topographic features of many karst regions.
Blind Valleys
A _________ is a valley like feature where a stream flowing through it in the upper reaches suddenly disappears in the lower reaches.
Blind Valleys
It is a system of 12 caves, covering an area of 2,968 hectare. This is probably the largest cave system in Southeast Asia, and most of it is still unexplored.
Calbiga Caves
These are the icicle like carbonate projections that hang down from the roof of the cave.
Stalactites
They may acquire fantastic shapes like slender rods and cones with flattened bases attached firmly with the roof, and may project for any length, even almost touching the floor of the cave.
Stalactites
These are also groundwater deposits of the same category as the stalactites but are made by deposition from the carbonate-rich droplets from ground upwards.
Stalagmites
The drops of water dripping from the cave lose carbon dioxide during downward fall in a regular manner.
Stalagmites
This deposit grows upward getting thicker also in the process.
Stalagmites
_________ is thus deposited at the floor of the cave just below the dripping water.
Calcium Carbonate
