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Last Study Guide! Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Mutation

A

changes in genetic material of a cell or virus

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2
Q

Point Mutation

A

chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene, which can lead to production of an abnormal protein

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3
Q

What are the two types of point mutation?

A

base-pair substitutions, insertions, and deletions

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4
Q

base-pair substitutions

A

replaces one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides

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5
Q

what are the three types of substitution mutations?

A

silent, missense, and nonsense

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6
Q

silent mutations

A

have no effect on the amino acid produced by a codon because of redundancy in the genetic code

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7
Q

missense mutations

A

still code for an amino acid, but not necessarily the right one

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8
Q

nonsense mutation

A

change an amino acid codon into a stop codon, nearly always leading to a nonfunctional protein

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9
Q

insertion and deletion mutations

A

additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene that may alter the reading frame, producing a frameshift mutation

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10
Q

reading frame

A

the way a sequence of nucleotides in mRNA is divided into codons

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11
Q

mutagen

A

physical or chemical agents that can cause mutations

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12
Q

Virus

A

a very small infectious particle consisting of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat and sometimes a membraneous envelope

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13
Q

Bacteriophage/Phage

A

viruses that infect bacteria

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14
Q

How have bacteriophages/phages contributed to our understanding of molecular genetics?

A

providing a simple model system to study fundamental concepts like the nature of genetic material (DNA), gene expression regulation, and the mechanisms of DNA replication

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15
Q

Host Range

A

a limited number of host cells that a virus can infect depending on its type of nucleic acid a virus a DNA or RNA virus

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16
Q

DNA virus

A

has DNA as its genome

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17
Q

RNA virus

A

has RNA as its genome

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18
Q

retro virus

A

a specific type of RNA virus that use an enzyme called “reverse transcriptase” to convert their RNA genome into DNA once inside a host cell, allowing them to integrate into the host’s DNA

19
Q

Lysogenic Cycle

A

The virus attaches to the host cell’s walls, and its genetic material becomes part of the host’s DNA. When the host cell replicates, the viral genetic material is replicated as well. The virus reproduces when the host cell makes proteins, and it leaves the cell through budding

20
Q

Lytic Cycle

A

a virus’s main method of reproduction, where it invades a host cell, uses its components to create more of itself, and then destroys the cell

21
Q

difference between lytic and lysogenic cycle

A

in lysogenic the virus is in the cell and eventually goes dormant, not harming the cell and lytic kills the cell

22
Q

What type of viruses are lytic or lysogenic?

A

bacteriophages

23
Q

restriction enzymes

A

bacteria defense against phages that recognize and cut up phage DNA

24
Q

why are restriction enzymes important in cloning?

A

they allow scientists to precisely cut DNA at specific sequences, creating compatible ends on DNA fragments that can then be joined, enabling the creation of new recombinant DNA

25
Q

What types of cells have human genes been cloned into?

A

most commonly bacterial cells like E.Coli

26
Q

What does the H in flu viruses stand for?

A

hemagglutinin

27
Q

What does N in flu viruses stand for?

A

neuraminidase enzyme

28
Q

function of hemagglutinin

A

cause red blood cells to clump together in vitro

29
Q

function of neuraminidase enzyme

A

helps the virus spread by releasing new viral particles from infected cells

30
Q

Why do you need a new flu vaccine every year?

A

because the flu virus changes rapidly and the protection from the previous year’s vaccine decreases over time

31
Q

Antigenic Drift

A

a process in which viruses accumulate mutations in their genes, which can lead to changes in the proteins on the surface of the virus

32
Q

how does antigenic drift lead to new flu subtypes?

A

gradually accumulating small mutations in the virus’s genetic code, making it slightly different from previous strains and allowing it to evade the immune system

33
Q

What is the function of viral spike proteins?

A

allow these viruses to penetrate host cells and cause infection

34
Q

What is the receptor on mammalian cells for SARS-CoV2 and what cells express this?

A

angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and smooth muscle cells

35
Q

How many types of influenza viruses do flu shots usually contain?

A

two or three

36
Q

What approaches are/were being used to develop a SARS-Cov2 vaccine?

A

mRNA and protein subunit vaccines.

37
Q

How does mRNA work?

A

use mRNA created in a laboratory to teach our cells how to make a protein—or even just a piece of a protein—that triggers an immune response inside our bodies

38
Q

How do protein subunit vaccines work?

A

contain pieces (proteins) of the virus that causes COVID-19. These virus pieces are the spike protein. The vaccine also contains another ingredient called an adjuvant that helps the immune system respond to that spike protein in the future

39
Q

What methods are use to get viral information into cells for immunization?

A

mRNA and viral vector

40
Q

mRNA immunization

A

designed to encode the viral antigen, which are delivered into cells to instruct them to produce the protein, triggering an immune response

41
Q

viral vector immunization

A

A harmless virus (like adenovirus or lentivirus) is genetically modified to carry the genetic code for the desired viral antigen, which is then delivered into the cell to produce the antigen

42
Q

what are liposomes and how are they used?

A

a tiny, spherical vesicle made of phospholipids, mimicking a cell membrane, and is used as a drug delivery system due to its ability to encapsulate both water-soluble and fat-soluble drugs within its structure, allowing targeted delivery to specific areas of the body while minimizing side effects

43
Q

what are nanoparticles and how are they used?

A

supa small particles, exhibit unique properties due to their minuscule size and large surface area, making them useful in various applications like medicine, electronics, and cosmetics, primarily for targeted drug delivery, enhanced imaging, and improved material properties

44
Q

What is in the COVID vaccines?

A

salts and lipids

Biology (6 decks)

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