Language Levels Flashcards
Context
External factors affecting text production/reception
Discourse event
Act of communication at specific time & location w/ writers/speakers and readers/listeners
Text producer
Person/people responsible (writing/speaking) for text creation
Text receiver
Person/people interpreting (reading/listening) a text
Multi-purpose text
Text with more than one clear purpose
Primary purpose
Clear, main purpose of text
Secondary purpose
Additional, subtler purpose
Implied reader
Constructed image of idealised reader
Actual reader
Any person/people engaging/interpreting a text
Implied writer
Constructed image of idealised writer
Actual writer
Actual people/person responsible for text production
Discourse community
People w/ shared interests/belief systems, interpret texts in similar ways
Mode
Physical mode of communication
Oppositional view
Different modes are completely different
Continuum
Sequence where elements close to each other are not noticeably different, but elements at opposite ends are completely different
Blended-mode
Text containing elements of speech and writing
Prototype model
Model looks at differences in texts as typical and less typical examples
Genre
Texts grouped by shared conventions
Intertextuality
Reference/borrowing of elements from other texts for specific purpose/effect
Variation
Differences associated w/ particular instances of language use and between different groups of language users
Register
Variety of language associated w/ particular situation of use
Situation of use
Specific time, place and context that communication takes place
Situational characteristic
Key characteristic of time, place and context where communication takes place
Representation
Portrayal of events, people and circumstances through language & other meaning-making resources (images/sound) to create a way of seeing the world
Narrative
Writing/speech presents a series of events, characters and places in a coherent form
Narrator
Person responsible for writing/speaking a narrative
Narratee
Person to whom the narrative is told
Time frame
Positioning of a narrative in the past, present or future
Story
Building blocks of a narrative in terms of narrative, characters, time and place
Narrative discourse
Shaping of story through choices in language & structure
Central events
Main events crucial to overall story
Additional events
Secondary events are not crucial to overall story, being included are highlighted as important
Knowledge frame/Embodied knowledge
Mental store of knowledge about world gained through experience
Gap-filling
Adding sense of meaning to individual words/phrases based on own knowledge/understanding and context in which they appear
Tellability
Features of a story making it worth telling to an audience
High-tellability
Characteristics of narratives which present interesting material in a highly engaging way
Low-tellability
Characteristics of narratives which present uninteresting material in an uninteresting way
Word class
Group of words w/ same function in speech/writing
Noun
Name of thing/concept
Verb
Shows state of being, action
Adjective
Modifies a noun
Adverb
Modifies a verb, adjective or adverb
Pronoun
Replaces a noun, referring forwards or backwards to noun which it replaces
Determiner
Adds clarity or detail to a noun
Preposition
Connections between words, shows place/time
Conjunction
Connections between larger structures: phrases, clauses and sentences
Open/lexical word class
Word class open to new membership
Closed/grammatical word class
Word class not open to new membership
Proper noun
Names of people/places
Abstract noun
States, feelings, concepts w/ no physical existence
Concrete noun
Objects w/ physical existence
Material verb
Show actions/events (hit, jump)
Relational verb
Properties/states of being (appear, become)
Mental verb
Internal processes (think, wish)
Verbal verb
External processes of communication (scream, say)
Base adjective
Base form (big, small)
Comparative adjective
Comparison between 2 things (bigger, smaller)
Superlative adjective
Comparison between >2 things (biggest, smallest)
Personal pronouns
Refer to person, number and gender (I, you, she/he/it, they)
Demonstrative pronouns
Orientate the text receiver towards object/person/idea further away (this, these, that those)
Indefinite pronouns
Non-specific person/object/idea (someone, anybody, anything)
Article (Determiner)
Show definite/indefinite (the-definite, a/an-indefinite)
Possessive (Determiner)
Show ownership (my, your, their, our)
Quantifier (Determiner)
Specific/non-specific quantities of a noun (One, two - specific; some, any, few - non-specific)
Co-ordinating conjunction
Link equal phrases/clauses (FANBOYS) for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Subordinating conjunction
Link dependent clauses (Because, although, while, whereas)
Semantic field
Group of words w/ same role in speech/writing (linked by theme, concept or domain of use)
Collocates
Words that go together
Binomial
Words that appear together in a specific order joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (rock and roll, fish and chips)
Fixed expression
Words that go together as a phrase and are not registered individually (see you later)
Synonym
Words w/ same meaning
Euphemism
More socially acceptable version
Dysphemism
Less socially acceptable version
Antonyms
Opposite meaning of word
Hyponymy
Structure of words from general -> specific
Metaphor
Presents one thing in terms of another (structure)
Morphology
Study of word formation
Syntax
Study of how words form longer structures such as phrases, clauses and sentences
Descriptive approach
Approach to language study that focuses on how language is ACTUALLY used
Prescriptive approach
Approach to language study that focuses on how language SHOULD be used
Root
Morpheme that can stand on its own and can usually form a word in its own right
Suffix
Morpheme AFTER a root word to modify meaning
Prefix
Morpheme BEFORE a root word to modify meaning
Affix
Overall term for addition to a root word to modify meaning
Infix
Affix inserted INSIDE a word to create a new word/modify meaning
Inflectional function
Affix that shows a grammatical category: verb tense or plural noun
Derivational function
Affix helps form a new word: changes meaning
Noun phrase
A noun and determiner, but also including a qualifier and pre-modifying adjective
Verb phrase
Containing a head verb and object, but forming a full phrase with subject, also counts as a sentence
Head word
Main word of the phrase
Pre-modifier
Word BEFORE the head word to add detail
Qualifier
Additional words/phrases to add detail to head word
Post-modifier
Additional words/phrases to add detail to head word
Primary auxiliary verb
Verb which joins with the head verb to show tense
Modal auxiliary verb
Verb which joins w/ head verb to show strength of commitment
Clause
Group of words around a verb phrase
Single clause sentence
Sentence with only one clause
Multiple-clause sentence
Sentence w/ 2 or more clauses
Subject
Person/thing which is doing or being whatever the verb shows, takes the form of a noun, pronoun or noun phrase
Occurs immediately BEFORE the verb it relates to
Is repeated in a tag question
Changes place with the auxiliary verb to form a question
Predicate
Describes subject in a sentence
Coordination
Joining of two clauses which makes them equal
Subordination
Joining of two clauses which makes one dependent on the other
Adverbial clause
Subordinate clause functioning as adverb
Noun clause
Subordinate clause functioning as subject
Active voice
Verb phrase in present/past tense, agent in subject position for emphasis
Passive voice
Agent omitted or placed later in clause using prepositional phrase
Minor sentence
Lacks one or more clause elements, intensify phrase similar to short simple sentences.
Simple sentence
Single-clause sentence. Shorter used to simplify, build tension, add drama and/or precision
Compound sentence
2+ simple sentences joined w/ co-ordinating conjunction, equal weighting and makes sense on its own, pronouns referring to earlier sentences does not take effect here.
Complex sentence
One main clause and 1+ subordinate clauses. More attention required for lesser subordinate clauses, serious, informative tone due to detail
Exclamatory sentence function
Ends with “!” and expresses shock, horror, surprise, joy, anger (emotions in writing)
Declarative sentence function
Declarations or statements, dominant sentence function and used to relate facts or opinions
Imperative sentence function
Usual to begin w/ verb, used to advise/warn/instruct
Interrogative sentence function
Reader and/or writer considering question posed. Shows confusion/inquisitiveness of a character. Used to make the reader stop, pause and consider so controls pace of reading
Asyndetic list
Listing w/o conjunctions. Emphasise point through cumulative effect, sense of urgency
Syndetic list
Listing w/ conjunctions. Convey abundance, emphasise point through cumulative effect
Parallelism
Phrases/sentences have similar structure/pattern. Rhythmic device for rhetoric to make phrases memorable. Sense of balance, wholeness
Ellipsis
Omission of part of sentence that can be understood from context, also avoids unnecessary repetition or create suspense
Foregrounding
Change in structure of sentence, place emphasis on opening sentence element, reader’s attention directed to foregrounded phrase.
Phonetics
Study of ways sounds produced by language users
Phonology
Study of abstract sound system
Prosodics
Meaning created through intonation, speed and volume.
IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet
Shows different sounds possible
Heterophones
Same spelling, different pronunciations/meanings
Homophones
Same pronunciations, different spelling/meaning
Articulators
Vocal organs above larynx including teeth, lips, tongue and hard palate, help form consonant sounds
Plosive
Complete closure of oral cavity
Fricative
Articulators positioned together but small space for air to escape
Affricate
Articulators come together, released like fricative
Nasal
Articulators stopping airflow with a release through the nose
Lateral
Articulators come together, air released over sides of tongue
Approximant
Articulators fully come together
Diphthong
Combination of two separate vowel sounds, moves from one to the other
Sound iconicity
Matching of sound to meaning
Consonance
Repeated consonant sounds for effect
Assonance
Repeated vowel sounds for effect
Sibilance
Repeated fricative sounds, especially s for effect
Lexical onomatopoeia
Words with associations between sound and meaning
Non-lexical onomatopoeia
Non-words signifying some meaning through their sounds
Phonological manipulation
Creative changes in sound patterns
Minimal pair
Two words that differ in only one sound “habit” and “hobbit”
Layout
Physical organisation of a text
Iconic
Sign/image which is direct representation
Symbolic
Sign/image which is NOT direct representation, shared knowledge required.
Typographical feature
Feature related to use of fonts in texts
Multimodal text
Uses different modes (visual, written, aural)
Embodied knowledge
Knowledge gained from EXPERIENCE of a concept/object
Schematic knowledge
Knowledge gained through READING/LEARNING about a concept/object
Co-text
Words which help reader to understand what is relevant about a concept/object
Maxim of quantity
Don’t say too little/too much
Maxim of quality
Tell the truth
Maxim of relevance
Keep on topic
Maxim of manner
Clear/unambiguous
Co-operative principle
Communication = co-operation
Conservational maxims
Explicit rules followed by conversationalists to easily understand each other
Implicature
Maxim potentially broken so inference needed to understand
Taciturn
Speaker says too little, reserved or uncommunicative speech
Prolix
Lengthy speech/writing too many words
Non-sequitir
Conclusion/statement does not logically follow on from previous statement/question
Positive face need
Need to be appreciated/valued
Negative face need
Need for independence
Face threatening act (FTA)
Act w/ potential to damage self-esteem (postive/negative face)
Politeness strategies
Avoiding threatening face
Deixis
Words related to specific context (place, time, person)
Person deixis
Names/personal pronouns
Temporal deixis
Time adverbs (today, yesterday, tomorrow)
Spatial deixis
Place adverbs (this, that, here, there)
Proximal deixis`
Related to objects close to the speaker
Distal deixis
Related to objects far away from the speaker
Deitic categories
Types of deitic expressions (spatial, temporal, personal)
Internal evaluation
Attitude expression occurring in the time frame of the narrative
External evaluation
Attitude expression occurring outside the time frame of the narrative
Turn-taking
Process of speakers co-constructing a conversation
Adjacency pair
Two turns in a conversation
Preferred response
2nd part of an adjacency pair that the first speaker wants to hear
Dispreferred response
2nd part of an adjacency pair that the first speaker doesn’t want to hear
Insertion sequence
An additional sequence within an adjacency pair
Exchange structure
Sequence of turns between speakers
Transition relevance place
Natural place that another speaker begins speaking
Constraint
Effect of a more powerful speaker over another
Abstract (Labov)
Indication a speaker wants to start a conversation
Orientation (Labov)
Who, what, where and why of a situation - sets scene, important info according to speaker
Complicating action (Labov)
Main body of narrative
Resolution (Labov)
Ending of narrative - closure
Coda
Signal end of narrative
Story preface (Goodwin)
Abstract (Labov)
Story solicit (Goodwin)
Encouragement of another speaker for first speaker to continue
Preliminary (Goodwin)
Orientation (Labov)
Story body (Goodwin)
Complicating action (Labov)
Story climax (Goodwin)
Resolution (Labov)
Story appreciation
Sounds of response from audience (laughter, agreement, questions, emotional displays)
Parenthesis
Additional background info
Filler
Non-verbal sound - uncertainty
False start
Speaker starts, stops and starts again
Repair
Speaker changes something they’ve said before
Skip-connector
Return to previous topic in conversation
Speaker support
Story appreciation (Goodwin) but only non-verbal sounds.
