Language & Gender -Paper 2 Flashcards
Define the term ‘sex’
Biological differences between males and females.
Define the term ‘gender’
The difference in behaviour and roles that are as a result of societal expectations.
Define the term ‘socialisation process’
A process by which individuals’ behaviours are conditioned and shaped.
Define the term ‘heteronormativity’
A set of norms and expectations based on heterosexuality.
What are the three D’s of language and gender theory?
- deficit
- dominance
- difference
What is meant by DEFICIT?
Means ‘inadequate’ or ‘insufficient’ > early 20th century where women’s roles were more narrowly defined.
-Assumes Male language as the ‘norm’ and female language ‘different’.
What is meant by DOMINANCE?
By the 1970s, movements such as women’s liberation analysed social behaviour in terms of Male oppression.
-dominance studies of Male vs female speech patterns showed ways in which female speakers took up more supportive, subsidiary roles
What is meant by DIFFERENCE?
This approach shifted the emphasis on Male vs female styles of communication as ‘different’ rather than better or worse. Focuses more on discourse than lexis and grammar.
What ideas are presented about the ‘macho Male’ ?
- ‘action’ rather than words
- emotionless
- monosyllabic
- prone to aggression
- gruff & abrupt
What ideas are presented about the ‘girly girl’ ?
- loves to gossip
- emotional
- impractical
- vague
- unassertive
- good at forming family bonds
(These ideas are extremes; not true for all social groups!)
What are the criticisms of the 3 D’s of Gender theory?
- Assume gender is a crucial unchanging part of a person’s identity.
- Do NOT account for cultural variables (Nationality, age, social position?)
- Do NOT account for situational variables (field, function, tenor?)
What are the two types of ‘prestige’ suggested by William Labov?
Overt and Covert
What did Robin Lakoff theorise in ‘Language and Woman’s Place’ (1975)?
Women’s speech can be distinguished from that of a males by: (believed women were shown to be weaker linguistically)
- Hedging
- Own special lexicon
- Empty adjectives
- Super-polite forms
- Indirect requests
- Tag questions
- Speak less frequently
- Use more intensifiers
- Have no sense of humour
- Hyper-Correct grammar and pronunciation
- Avoid curse language and expletives
What are criticisms of Lakoff’s theory?
- She never tested her assumptions> not accurate thesis but assumptions
- Outdated> 1975> historical and societal shifts as gender roles are constantly changing
- challenged by O’Barr & Atkins > said the differences are situation specific, relying on who has power and authority in context
What did Pamela Fishman theorise?
Women:
- Ask more questions
- More feedback & compliments
- Use ‘you’ and ‘we’ more
- Women are supportive and talk about feelings & relationships more
- Conversational shitwork
Men:
- Interrupt more
- Ignore others utterances & express disagreement
- Reluctant to pursue others topics> more competitive
- their response/ lack of causes conversation to fail
What are criticisms of Pamela Fishman’s theory?
Rather outdated
-Generalisation> American sample
What did Lakoff test?
Wrote from a feminist perspective to see if language reflected women’s subordinate role in society
What did Zimmerman & West theorise?
- Concluded that men attempt to dominate conversation> supported the Dominance model
- They were investigating the presence of uncooperative interactive features, such as interruptions
Greif added: ‘Fathers interrupt more than mothers’ & ‘both parents interrupt daughters more than sons’
What is a criticism of Zimmerman & West’s theory?
- Outdated> 1975> societal shifts mean women have more opportunity of opinion as gender roles are changing
- Had a very close field; at the University of America were solely white, middle-class & under 35 subjects > from a privileged background > generalisation has
What were the findings of Zimmerman & West’s theory? (1975)
They report that in 11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions whilst women used 2
-ideas we’re challenged by Geoffrey Beattie
What did Geoffrey Beattie theorise? (1982)
Was critical of Zimmerman and West’s findings > ‘Why do interruptions necessarily reflect dominance?’
-Recorded 10 hours of discussion & some 557 interruptions
What did Geoffrey Beattie conclude in 1982?
That women and men interrupted with more or less equal frequency > men only did it slightly more (by a margin so slight as not to be statistically significant)
What did Deborah Tannen theorise?
Studied how conversational styles of women and men differ.
She concluded:
•Independence Vs intimacy > women preserve closeness and support whilst men focus on independence
•Advice Vs understanding > women often want sympathy but men find his challenging and come up with a solution instead
•Information Vs feelings
•Conflict Vs compromise > women will openly try to refuse to oppose the will of someone else where as men use imperatives and demanding tone
What do Deborah Tannen’s idea support?
‘The difference model’
What did O’Barr and Atkins theorise in ‘Women’s language or powerless language’ (1980)?
Studied language use in courtroom to test Lakoff’s ideas in this specific context.
•Found that the language use associated with women was exhibited by both males and females when in a powerless situation in the courtroom > renamed this ‘powerless language’ and pointed to women speakers who didn’t fit Lakoff’s claims as they had accorded status in their jobs
What did Pamela Fishman study in ‘Interaction: the Work Women do’ (1983)?
Argues that the conversation between the sexes often fails, not because of anything inherent in the way women talk but because of how males respond or their lack of response
•women use ‘conversational shit work’ to maintain a conversation > questions Lakoff’s theory about asking questions showing inferiority and hesitancy (states women ask questions because of the power of these rather than reflecting personality weaknesses)
What does Jennifer Coates state in her theory (1980s)?
- men often reject a topic of conversation when introduced by women but women will pursue male topics
- men discuss ‘male’ topics eg business, sport, politics
- women are more likely to initiate conversation than men, but are less likely to make it succeed
