language change Flashcards
What is Bailey’s wave model?
A theory suggesting that language change spreads like ripples, with proximity to the change affecting likelihood of adaptation.
According to Bailey, who is more likely to adopt language changes?
Speakers who are closer to the start of a change, socially or geographically.
What happens to language as it spreads regionally and socially?
It has less impact and results in lower rates of understanding.
Fill in the blank: Bailey suggested that language spreads in a _______ effect.
[ripple]
What attitude do people close to a language change tend to have?
A more positive attitude due to higher understanding of the language.
What example is given to illustrate resistance to language change?
Older generations may reject terms like ‘leny’ as they feel alienated from the language.
True or False: According to Bailey’s theory, distance from a language change increases the likelihood of adaptation.
False
What are some questions that can be raised regarding Bailey’s wave model?
- Evaluate the idea that language change spreads through social contact
- Evaluate the idea that change is detrimental to the English language
- Evaluate the idea that changes in the language lead to misunderstanding.
What effect does Bailey suggest language change has on understanding?
It leads to lower rates of understanding as it spreads.
What is Hockett’s theory of language change?
Languages change due to random errors in events, such as freak weather or predictive text.
This theory emphasizes that language change is a neutral process, neither progress nor decay.
According to Hockett, what is the significance of random events in language change?
Random events can lead to the introduction of new terms, such as ‘lockdown’ during the COVID-19 pandemic.
This showcases how societal changes necessitate linguistic adaptation.
True or False: Hockett suggests that language change can be controlled and predicted.
True
Hockett believes that since language change is random, people may be more accepting of changes over time.
Fill in the blank: Hockett argues that language change is a _______ process.
neutral
What are some questions Hockett’s theory can be applied to?
Evaluate the idea that:
* An institution should be set up to control changes to the English Language
* Language change is predictable
* Changes in the English Language are desirable
* Changes cause the language to decay
These questions encourage a critical examination of language evolution.
What historical figure is mentioned in relation to language standardization?
Caxton
Caxton’s introduction of typesetting contributed to the standardization of English.
What does Hockett suggest about the desirability of language changes?
Changes in language can be seen as neutral rather than inherently desirable or undesirable.
This perspective allows for a broader understanding of language evolution.
What is an example of a new term introduced during the COVID-19 pandemic?
‘lockdown’
This term reflects the need for linguistic adaptation in response to global events.
Fill in the blank: Hockett emphasizes that language change is neither _______ nor _______.
progress, decay
What is one historical aspect of English language development mentioned?
The introduction of typesetting by Caxton.
This innovation allowed for greater consistency in the written language.
True or False: Hockett believes that language change is entirely predictable.
False
While he suggests that it can be somewhat predictable, he emphasizes its randomness.
What does the term ‘linguistically adapt’ refer to in Hockett’s theory?
The process of adjusting language use in response to new societal circumstances.
This adaptation is crucial for effective communication in changing environments.
What does Halliday’s functional theory propose about language?
Language changes to meet the needs of its users
This theory emphasizes that as society evolves, so does language, adapting to new inventions and concepts.
What drives the change in language according to Halliday?
Change happens first, then drives the change in language
This indicates that societal developments often precede linguistic adaptations.
True or False: Language change is viewed negatively according to Halliday’s theory.
False
Halliday suggests that language change reflects societal development and is therefore a positive process.
How does Halliday describe the nature of language?
Language is cyclical
This means that words can fall in and out of use, reflecting changing societal needs and expressions.
What example does Halliday use to illustrate language change?
Cryptocurrency
This term exemplifies how new concepts necessitate the introduction of new vocabulary.
Fill in the blank: Halliday’s functional theory states that language changes to meet the needs of its _______.
[users]
What are two outcomes of language change according to Halliday?
- New words are created to describe new inventions
- Outdated concepts can lead to losses from the language
What does Halliday suggest about colloquial language?
It discards words at a rapid rate to fulfill needs for identification and expression
This highlights the dynamic nature of language in everyday use.
What should be evaluated regarding the idea of language change?
- Change is damaging to the English language
- Language change is necessary
What is linguistic determinism?
The theory that language shapes thought and that our ability to think is limited to the language we possess.
It is closely associated with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggest?
Human thought is largely possible through language, meaning we can only think about concepts for which we have the language to articulate.
This hypothesis implies that language influences our perception of reality.
How does political correctness relate to linguistic determinism?
Political correctness attempts to reduce discrimination by promoting inclusive language, which reflects the idea that language influences thought.
Examples include replacing ‘fireman’ with ‘firefighter’ and ‘victim’ with ‘survivor’.
True or False: Linguistic determinism posits that language completely controls thought.
False.
It suggests that language can influence thoughts but does not fully control them.
What is the ‘euphemism treadmill’?
The concept that as language evolves, terms that were once considered neutral can become pejorative, leading to a continual cycle of new euphemisms.
This reflects the idea that changing language may not effectively change underlying social attitudes.
Fill in the blank: The idea that language can only mirror thoughts but does not have complete control over them is a _______ to determinism.
rejection
This perspective emphasizes the limitations of linguistic determinism.
What was a significant change in language promoted by political correctness?
Replacing ‘fireman’ with ‘firefighter’ and ‘STD clinic’ with ‘sexual health clinic’.
These changes aim to be more inclusive and reduce gender bias in language.
What does linguistic determinism suggest about concepts before having language to describe them?
It was thought that people had no concept of things before they had the language to describe them.
This idea has been revised to suggest that while language influences thought, it does not completely define it.
What is the main criticism of linguistic determinism?
It is criticized for being overly simplistic and not accounting for the complexities of how language and thought interact.
Critics argue that thought can exist independently of language.
What is the relationship between language and thought according to linguistic determinism?
Language controls thought to a degree, influencing how we perceive and conceptualize the world.
This relationship is a foundational aspect of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
What is reflectionism?
Reflectionism suggests that language is shaped by thoughts and reflects who we are and how we think.
This concept is contrary to linguistic determinism.
What is ‘the euphemism treadmill’ as suggested by Pinker?
‘The euphemism treadmill’ implies a constant change of language due to derogatory social signals surrounding certain words, leading to their replacement.
This phenomenon is essential for understanding political correctness.
Why is rapid language change difficult for some people to keep up with?
Elderly individuals or those distanced from media may find it challenging to keep up with rapid language changes, which can lead to misunderstandings.
They may be perceived as being out of the loop rather than just misinformed.
What do Benign Prescriptivists advocate for?
Benign Prescriptivists advocate for the use of more inclusive language, such as non-binary pronouns, to create inclusivity for all genders.
This relates to the concept of political correctness.
What is the stance of Prescriptivists regarding inclusive language?
Prescriptivists object to inclusive language features on the grounds that they display what is considered to be ‘incorrect grammar.’
True or False: Linguistic determinism supports the idea that language can be used to improve society.
False
Linguistic determinism suggests that language limits thoughts, while reflectionism posits that thoughts shape language.
Fill in the blank: Prescriptivists argue that inclusive language features display _______.
[incorrect grammar]
Evaluate the idea that language change can be used to improve society.
Language change can be used to improve society; however, some argue that it cannot always change people’s thoughts.
What types of new words were formed through derivation and compounding in the 1990s?
New words were formed through derivation and compounding
This finding is based on research into language change during the 1990s.
What does the research suggest about language change?
Language change is predictable
This is because we already know the meanings of parts of words.
True or False: Language change leads to misunderstanding.
False
The idea is disputed as language change is systematic and self-regulating.
What are common types of neologism mentioned?
Common types of neologism include:
* Shortenings
* Composites (derivations)
* Compounds
* Blends
* Loanwords
Examples of blends include terms like ‘brunch’.
Fill in the blank: The term for a word formed by combining parts of two words is called a _______.
[blend]
An example of a blend is ‘brunch’.
What is one question regarding the predictability of language change?
Evaluate the idea that language change is predictable
This question prompts analysis of the patterns in language evolution.
What is a question related to the control of language change?
Evaluate the idea that language change should be controlled
This question encourages discussion on the necessity and feasibility of regulating language evolution.
What does the term ‘loanword’ refer to?
A loanword is a word adopted from one language and incorporated into another
Loanwords are important in the study of language change as they reflect cultural exchange.
What is the first stage of the Haugers Far-stages Process of Standardization?
Selection
This stage involves selecting a language variety, influenced by scholars, RP speakers, wealthy people, and the chancery.
What was the chancery standard?
An agreed form of English based on East Midlands dialect
The chancery standard helped to establish a universal standard English by popularizing the East Midlands dialect.
Which regions were the main centers of academic excellence in the context of standardization?
Cambridge and Oxford
Both universities are located in the East Midlands and played a crucial role in the standardization process.
What is the second stage of the Haugers Far-stages Process of Standardization?
Codification
This stage involves the reduction of internal variability, establishment of rules, lexis, grammatical structures, and spelling.
What realization did the author come to regarding language by the end of the codification stage?
Language cannot be controlled
The author recognized that despite efforts to standardize, language remains dynamic and evolving.
Fill in the blank: The main two centers of academic excellence that influenced the standardization process are _______ and _______.
Cambridge, Oxford
True or False: The selection stage of standardization was primarily influenced by common people.
False
The selection stage was influenced by scholars, RP speakers, wealthy individuals, and the chancery.
What aspects were established during the codification stage?
Rules, lexis, grammatical structures, spelling
This stage aimed to create a more uniform language by addressing variability.
What was the impact of Carton’s printing press on standardization?
It helped to popularize a universal standard English
The press contributed to the dissemination and acceptance of the East Midlands dialect.
In the context of the selection stage, what does RP stand for?
Received Pronunciation
RP is a prestigious accent of British English that played a role in influencing standardization.
What is Stage 3 in language development?
Elabasahan
The selected language is developed for a variety of purposes, which may involve expansion of linguistic resources.
Who is Robert Lowth and what is his contribution to grammar?
A prescriptive grammarian who lists rules such as no split infinitives and no double negatives.
What is linguistic purism?
The desire to stop changes in language that move it away from its original sources, particularly Germanic roots.
What must be ensured when standardizing a language?
There must be enough linguistic resources.
How did Shakespeare contribute to the English language?
He derived and popularized words, contributing to the rebirth of the English language.
What role did exploration and trade play in language development?
It added borrowed words from native interactions, such as coffee and avocado.
What significant period contributed to the expansion of the English language?
The period when the British Empire became huge.
What fields contributed to the development of anatomical terms in English?
Science and discovery, particularly in astronomy and anatomy.
Fill in the blank: The word ‘telescope’ is derived from _______.
Latin.
True or False: The term ‘thermometer’ is derived from Latin.
True.
What was the primary goal of the Standard language?
To ensure currency by making texts available
This aimed to encourage users to develop faith and loyalty.
What significant event occurred in 1534 regarding the Protestant church?
The reformation of the Protestant church by Henry VIII
What was the primary focus of the Bible prior to the break with Rome?
Lah’s was primarily just for the Bible
What did the break with Rome lead to?
A desire to publish a Bible in English
What is the significance of the King James Bible?
It was the first authorized English Bible and set a standard English form
How did schooling and literacy relate to educational reforms?
Schooling and literacy/education reform acts helped promote education
Is Jean Aitchison a prescriptivist or descriptivist?
Descriptivist
What was Aitchison’s theory?
Attacks the prescriptivist view by presenting 3 language metaphors that she feels are false.
What are the 3 language metaphors that Aitchison presents?
1) Crumbling Castle metaphor
2) The Damp Spoon Syndrome
3) The Infectious Disease
What does the Crumbling Castle metaphor suggest?
Suggests that English was once a great castle, but over time has decayed and crumbled into the sea.
What does Aitchison state about the Crumbling Castle metaphor?
States that this is false because the description of English as a ‘once fine language’ is inaccurate as language is constantly changing and evolving.
What quote does Aitchison say about English being perfect?
“No year” she said, “can be found when language achieved some peak of perfection.”
What is the Damp Spoon Syndrome?
Metaphor used to describe that language change is caused by laziness, such as the kind of sloppiness you get with a damp spoon being left in a sugar bowl.
What quote does Aitchison provide about the Damp Spoon Syndrome?
The only true lazy speech is… “The only true lazy speech is drunken speech, where alcohol affects the coordination, and English is not getting like drunken speech.”
What is the Infectious Disease metaphor?
The view that inaccurate language is contagious and that we somehow ‘catch’ changes from those around us, and that we ought to fight such diseases.
What is right and wrong about the Infectious Disease metaphor?
The catching notion is right as change is brought about through social contact, but the disease metaphor is wrong.
Why is the disease metaphor wrong?
People pick up changes because they want to, e.g., to fit in with social groups or use different varieties in a given context, for example using dialects to fit, teen-speak amongst youth.
What is Prescriptivism?
Prescriptivism is the belief that Standard English is the correct form and that other forms are undesirable.
What is Descriptivism?
Descriptivism acknowledges that people use language differently for many reasons and that there isn’t one best form of English.
Is language change natural?
Yes, language change is natural, inevitable, and cannot be controlled.
What is the Inkhorn Controversy?
The Inkhorn Controversy is a form of Prescriptivism where schools taught Latin/Greek as aspirational, leading to resistance against language change.
What did Chee realize about language change?
Chee realized that efforts to stop language change were unsuccessful and that language change reflects society’s changes.
What was Joseph Tristam’s view on language rules?
Joseph Tristam did not believe that all the rules in grammar books and dictionaries were necessary or authentic.
Why is Standard English considered important?
Standard English is considered important because it guarantees intelligibility and allows people from all over the world to communicate on mutual ground.
What questions arise regarding Standard English?
Questions arise about power, prestige, and class in relation to Standard English.
