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English langauge paper 2 > gender and communication > Flashcards

gender and communication Flashcards

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Proverbs and Idioms flashcards
1
Q

what are the 4 approaches of gender in language?

A
  • deficit
  • dominance
  • difference
  • diversity
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2
Q

the deficit model

A
  • argues that womens language is lacking in some form
  • women cannot do certain things that men can because of a lack of ‘something in their language’
  • womens language is more emotional than intelligent
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3
Q

the dominance model

A
  • contrasts to the difference model
  • linguists argue that language of men is more dominant in society
  • language of men holds more power than of womens
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4
Q

the difference model

A
  • idea that language of men and women are simply different
  • neither is superior- just the style of speech adapted by a woman is in contrast to a mans
  • still assumes that women and men speak differently because of their biological sex
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5
Q

the diversity model

A
  • suggests that gender and sex are different things
  • argue that ones biological sex has NO influence on language
  • instead- society and socialisation affect our language
  • there is a diverse range of factors that contribute to language use
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6
Q

what is Lakoff’s approach to the deficit model?

A

male language is seen as the norm and women’s language is viewed as different and deficient to mens language

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7
Q

what are somet things that lakoff suggests?

deficit model

A
  • women are not just kept in their place by the way they use language themself
  • they are socialised to use language that makes its users sound silly & powerless
  • labelled womens spoken language in a way that implies it is completely different to mens
  • characterised female language as having linguistic features that highlight womens uncertainty
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8
Q

hedges + examples

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A
  • hedging propositions to make them sound less forceful
  • sort of, i think, “im just going to the shops”
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9
Q

super-polite forms + examples

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A
  • making requests indirectly and avoiding swear words
  • e.g. “would you mind if…”
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10
Q

tag questions + examples

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A
  • phrasing statements as tag questions, as if seeing others’ approval for ones own opinion
  • e.g. “you like it, don’t you?”
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11
Q

intonational emphasis/emphatic stress + examples

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A
  • could mean speaking in italics to emphasise certain words
  • such as ‘very’ or ‘so’
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12
Q

empty adjectives + examples

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A
  • using adjectives to over-describe something, making evaluations that are emotional rather than intellectual ones
  • e.g. “divine” “adorable”
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13
Q

hyper-correct grammar

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A

they use correct grammar with very clear articulation

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14
Q

direct quotation

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A

because men paraphrase more

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15
Q

use of diminitives more than men + example

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A
  • shortened versions of words
  • e.g. Nick for Nicolas
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16
Q

indirect commands and requests + e.g.

LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)

A
  • off record indirect
  • e.g. “isnt it cold in here”- wanting the heater to be turned on
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17
Q

limitations of Lakoff’s theory

A
  • ideas argued as outdated
  • ideas very general about genders- not representitive of everyone
  • did none of the research herself
  • the WEIRD problem (white, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic)
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18
Q

what theorists support the dominance model?

A
  1. zimmerman and west (1975)
  2. Geoffrey Beattie (1982)
  3. Esther Greif (1980)
  4. pamela Fishman (1978)
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19
Q

key points of dominance model

A
  • sees men as dominant because of their social and political power
  • men seen as using language as a means of reinforcing or maintaining their power in conversations.
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20
Q

what was Zimmerman and West’s study

dominance approach

A
  • college campus study
  • recorded conversations with mixed and same genders
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21
Q

findings of zimmerman and west’s study

dominance approach

A
  • men were responsible for 96% of interruptions in conversations
  • men didnt let women speak & overlap them
  • men rarely interrupt other men and had delayed minimal responses
  • concluded that men must be attempting to dominate gender
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22
Q

criticims & limitations of the Zimmerman and West’s study

dominance approach

A
  • small reseach group (not generalisable about wider population)
  • only used all white, middle-class men under 35
  • only counted the mixed gender conversations
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23
Q

why does Geoffrey Beattie’s study go against Zimmerman and west’s?

dominance approach

A
  • he found that men and women interrupted with equal frequency
  • claimed that interruptions do not necessarily have to reflect dominance but instead reflect the interest and involvement of participant in conversation
  • implies that context of the conversation is crucial when analysing dominance of conversation.
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24
Q

what was Grief’s (1980) study?

dominance approach

A
  • examined sex differences in the use of interruptions and similtaneous speech, during conversations between parents and pre-school children.
  • each pair engaged in in semi-structured play for 30 mins
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25
Q

findings of Greif’s (1980) study

dominance approach

A
  • there was no significant differences between boys and girls in the the use of 2 conversational techniques
  • fathers interrupted more and spoke simultaneously more than mothers did
  • these results indicate power differences between men and women- shed light on the socialisation of children into gender roles
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26
Q

what is a possible reason why didnt Grief find any significant differences between boys and girls?

dominance approach

A

children dont understand conversation ettiquite

27
Q

what was Pamela Fishmans original theory

dominance approach

A
  • the ‘theory of interaction shitwork’
  • suggested that in conversation, women do the donkey-work but rarely benifit from the process.
  • focused on private conversations between hetrosexual, white, middle-class couples
28
Q

what were pamela fishman’s findings

dominance approach

A
  • intersex communication doesn’t fail due to anything related to the way women talk but because of mens response/ lack of.
  • women left with task of making conversation work- men do not try
  • DUE TO- womens inferior status in society & use it to form relationships with men.
29
Q

what was Pamela Fishman’s further research in 1990.

dominance approach

A

comparing how men and women used the following features:
* questions
* minimal responses
* attention getters
* topic initiation and uptake

30
Q

name the 6 theorists that support the difference model.

difference approach

A
  1. Deborah Tannen
  2. Jennifer Coats
  3. Jane Pilkington
  4. Marjorie Goodwin
  5. Candice west
  6. Janet Holmes
31
Q

What did Tannen suggest

difference approach

A

argued that male-female conversation could be viewed as a form of miscommunication where women were naturally inclined to be cooperative in conversation- and men are more competitive (innate biological characteristics)

32
Q

what were the 6 differences for men in conversation according to tannen

difference approach

A
  • use language to show status
  • more likely to offer solutions
  • more direct-use imperitives
  • argue points
  • independence
  • factual
    REPORT STYLE
33
Q

what were the 6 differences for women in conversation according to tannen

difference approach

A
  • show support and agree with others
  • empathy and understanding
  • suggesting tone
  • avoid conflict
  • language is a means of connecting with others
  • less factual- more emotional.
34
Q

What did Coates investigate

difference approach

A

an investigation into ‘gossip’ - focused on all female groups in informal context

35
Q

what were Coates findings

difference approach

A
  • women tended to overlap or speak at the same time consistantantly
  • these simultaneous utterances were’nt butting-in interruptions, but a way of showing interest and sharing the floor.
  • sign of solidarity
36
Q

what did Pilkington investigate

difference approach

A

contrasted all-male and all-female interactions in two different bakeries

37
Q

what were pilkington’s findings

difference approach

A

males…
* long pauses, argued, criticised, changed topics abruptly and used verbal abuse & put downs as a strategy of amusement
females…
* cooperative, supportive feedback, hedges and boosters
both express solidarity and maintain relationships.

38
Q

what did Goodwin investigate

difference approach

A

observed the group play of girls & boys. noticed that boys used different types of directives from girls.

39
Q

what were Goodwins findings?

difference approach

A
  • girls and boys use different linguistic means to express directives when playing in a same sex group
  • males use aggrivated directives (gimme, get off)
  • females use mitigated directives.
40
Q

what did Goodwin conclude?

difference approach

A

that linguistic forms used- reflect the social organisation of the groups. ( girls are non-heirarchal and boys are heirachally organised)

41
Q

what were wests investigation & findings

difference approach

A
  • looked at directives between doctors and patients.
  • found that male doctors used more aggrivated directives- while females used more mitigated ones
  • the softer directivs of women were more successful in getting patients to do what was wanted.
42
Q

what did Holmes investigate

difference approach

A

distinguished the different functions served by both hedges and tag questions

43
Q

what were the broad groups that the hedge ‘you know’ was put into- HOLMES

difference approach

A
  • where it expresses uncertainty
  • where it expresses certainty
44
Q

what were the different reasons tag questions were used- HOLMES

difference aproach

A
  1. model tags- express uncertainty
  2. facilitative tags- support the addressee
  3. softening tags- soften the force of a negative utterance.
45
Q

what are the 4 theorists supporting the diversity model

A
  1. O’Barr and Atkins
  2. Cameron
  3. Hyde
  4. Butler
46
Q

what was O’barr and Atkins study?

diversity approach

A

analysed 150 hours of criminal court trials- looking for the features that lakoff identified as womens language.

47
Q

what were O’barr and Atkins findings?

diversity approach

A
  1. WL features are not the characteristics of all women
  2. WL features are not restricted to all women
  3. the use of WL features do not correlate with speakers gender.
48
Q

what are the social factors O’barr and Atkins suggest?

diversity approach

A
  1. speakers social STATUS
  2. speakers previous EXPERIENCE of the courtroom
    women are seen as powerless but due to their position in society- not gender.
49
Q

what is D.Cameron’s study?

diversity approach

A
  • states that fundamental gender differences is misleading
  • fundamental difference in the language used by different genders is a MYTH and ignores social context
  • it’s an issue of power and language
50
Q

what is J.Hyde’s study?

diversity approach

A

found evidence for the Gender similarities Hypothesis.

51
Q

what were J.Hyde’s study findings?

diversity approach

A
  • show a small difference in most areas of communication in genders
  • more similarities than differences in the way men and women use language.
52
Q

what was J.Butler’s study?

diversity approach

A
  • idea of gender performativity- suggesting that identities are unstable.
  • argues we are constantly engaged in constructing gender
  • we perform gender which is constructed by societies norms.
  • CHALLENGES idea of biological determinism
53
Q

what 4 theorists support the dominance model?

A
  • zimmerman and west
  • geoffrey beattie
  • Esther Grief
  • Pamela Fishman
54
Q

what does the dominance approach suggest?

A
  • sees men as dominant because of their social and political power
  • men were seen as using language as a means to maintain or reinforce their power in conversations
55
Q

what were Grief’s findings?

dominance model

A
  • discovered 557 total interruptions
  • men & women interrupted eachother with equal frequency
  • interruptions do not necessarily have to reflect dominance but instead- reflect the interest and investment in the conversation
  • context is crucial when analysing dominance in conversation.
55
Q

what was zimmerman and wests study?

dominance approach

A

a college campus study- recording converations between mixed and same sex.

55
Q

what were zimmerman and west’s findings

dominance approach

A
  • women did not overlap men- only women
  • men didnt let women speak
  • men had minimal delayed minimal responses
  • men attempt to be the dominating gender
55
Q

what are the criticisms or zimmerman and wests research?

dominance approach

A
  • small research group (not generalisable)
  • only used all white, middle-class, men under 35
  • recorded mixed gender and single gender conversations BUT only counted the mixed gender conversation.
56
Q

what was Beattie’s study

dominance model

A
  • came up with an alternative to zimmerman and wests study
  • conducted discussions amongst university students
57
Q

what did Grief study?

dominance approach

A
  • examined sex differences in the use of interruptions and simultaneous speech, during conversations between parents and preschool children.
  • parent-child semistructured play for 30 mins
58
Q

what were Grief’s findings?

dominance model

A
  • no significant difference between boys and girls in the use of interruptions & simultaneous speech.
  • fathers interrupted more and spoke simultaneously more than mothers
  • both parents were likely to interrupt child
  • results indicate power differences between men & women
  • sheds light on socialisation of gender roles
59
Q

what did Pamela Fishman study?

dominance approach

A
  • the theory of ‘interaction shitwork’
  • suggest that in conversation, women do the donkey work but rarely benifit from the process
  • focused on private conversations between couples
60
Q

what were fishman’s findings?

dominance approach

A
  • intersex conversation fails because of mens response or lack of.
  • women have to make convo work, men do not try
  • this was due to a womans inferior status in society
61
Q

what was the further research fishman did?

dominance approach

A

how men and women used the following features:
* questions
* minimal responses
* attention getters
* topic initiation and uptake

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