gender and communication Flashcards
what are the 4 approaches of gender in language?
- deficit
- dominance
- difference
- diversity
the deficit model
- argues that womens language is lacking in some form
- women cannot do certain things that men can because of a lack of ‘something in their language’
- womens language is more emotional than intelligent
the dominance model
- contrasts to the difference model
- linguists argue that language of men is more dominant in society
- language of men holds more power than of womens
the difference model
- idea that language of men and women are simply different
- neither is superior- just the style of speech adapted by a woman is in contrast to a mans
- still assumes that women and men speak differently because of their biological sex
the diversity model
- suggests that gender and sex are different things
- argue that ones biological sex has NO influence on language
- instead- society and socialisation affect our language
- there is a diverse range of factors that contribute to language use
what is Lakoff’s approach to the deficit model?
male language is seen as the norm and women’s language is viewed as different and deficient to mens language
what are somet things that lakoff suggests?
deficit model
- women are not just kept in their place by the way they use language themself
- they are socialised to use language that makes its users sound silly & powerless
- labelled womens spoken language in a way that implies it is completely different to mens
- characterised female language as having linguistic features that highlight womens uncertainty
hedges + examples
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
- hedging propositions to make them sound less forceful
- sort of, i think, “im just going to the shops”
super-polite forms + examples
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
- making requests indirectly and avoiding swear words
- e.g. “would you mind if…”
tag questions + examples
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
- phrasing statements as tag questions, as if seeing others’ approval for ones own opinion
- e.g. “you like it, don’t you?”
intonational emphasis/emphatic stress + examples
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
- could mean speaking in italics to emphasise certain words
- such as ‘very’ or ‘so’
empty adjectives + examples
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
- using adjectives to over-describe something, making evaluations that are emotional rather than intellectual ones
- e.g. “divine” “adorable”
hyper-correct grammar
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
they use correct grammar with very clear articulation
direct quotation
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
because men paraphrase more
use of diminitives more than men + example
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
- shortened versions of words
- e.g. Nick for Nicolas
indirect commands and requests + e.g.
LAKOFFS WOMENS LANGUAGE FEATURES (WLF)
- off record indirect
- e.g. “isnt it cold in here”- wanting the heater to be turned on
limitations of Lakoff’s theory
- ideas argued as outdated
- ideas very general about genders- not representitive of everyone
- did none of the research herself
- the WEIRD problem (white, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic)
what theorists support the dominance model?
- zimmerman and west (1975)
- Geoffrey Beattie (1982)
- Esther Greif (1980)
- pamela Fishman (1978)
key points of dominance model
- sees men as dominant because of their social and political power
- men seen as using language as a means of reinforcing or maintaining their power in conversations.
what was Zimmerman and West’s study
dominance approach
- college campus study
- recorded conversations with mixed and same genders
findings of zimmerman and west’s study
dominance approach
- men were responsible for 96% of interruptions in conversations
- men didnt let women speak & overlap them
- men rarely interrupt other men and had delayed minimal responses
- concluded that men must be attempting to dominate gender
criticims & limitations of the Zimmerman and West’s study
dominance approach
- small reseach group (not generalisable about wider population)
- only used all white, middle-class men under 35
- only counted the mixed gender conversations
why does Geoffrey Beattie’s study go against Zimmerman and west’s?
dominance approach
- he found that men and women interrupted with equal frequency
- claimed that interruptions do not necessarily have to reflect dominance but instead reflect the interest and involvement of participant in conversation
- implies that context of the conversation is crucial when analysing dominance of conversation.
what was Grief’s (1980) study?
dominance approach
- examined sex differences in the use of interruptions and similtaneous speech, during conversations between parents and pre-school children.
- each pair engaged in in semi-structured play for 30 mins
findings of Greif’s (1980) study
dominance approach
- there was no significant differences between boys and girls in the the use of 2 conversational techniques
- fathers interrupted more and spoke simultaneously more than mothers did
- these results indicate power differences between men and women- shed light on the socialisation of children into gender roles
what is a possible reason why didnt Grief find any significant differences between boys and girls?
dominance approach
children dont understand conversation ettiquite
what was Pamela Fishmans original theory
dominance approach
- the ‘theory of interaction shitwork’
- suggested that in conversation, women do the donkey-work but rarely benifit from the process.
- focused on private conversations between hetrosexual, white, middle-class couples
what were pamela fishman’s findings
dominance approach
- intersex communication doesn’t fail due to anything related to the way women talk but because of mens response/ lack of.
- women left with task of making conversation work- men do not try
- DUE TO- womens inferior status in society & use it to form relationships with men.
what was Pamela Fishman’s further research in 1990.
dominance approach
comparing how men and women used the following features:
* questions
* minimal responses
* attention getters
* topic initiation and uptake
name the 6 theorists that support the difference model.
difference approach
- Deborah Tannen
- Jennifer Coats
- Jane Pilkington
- Marjorie Goodwin
- Candice west
- Janet Holmes
What did Tannen suggest
difference approach
argued that male-female conversation could be viewed as a form of miscommunication where women were naturally inclined to be cooperative in conversation- and men are more competitive (innate biological characteristics)
what were the 6 differences for men in conversation according to tannen
difference approach
- use language to show status
- more likely to offer solutions
- more direct-use imperitives
- argue points
- independence
- factual
REPORT STYLE
what were the 6 differences for women in conversation according to tannen
difference approach
- show support and agree with others
- empathy and understanding
- suggesting tone
- avoid conflict
- language is a means of connecting with others
- less factual- more emotional.
What did Coates investigate
difference approach
an investigation into ‘gossip’ - focused on all female groups in informal context
what were Coates findings
difference approach
- women tended to overlap or speak at the same time consistantantly
- these simultaneous utterances were’nt butting-in interruptions, but a way of showing interest and sharing the floor.
- sign of solidarity
what did Pilkington investigate
difference approach
contrasted all-male and all-female interactions in two different bakeries
what were pilkington’s findings
difference approach
males…
* long pauses, argued, criticised, changed topics abruptly and used verbal abuse & put downs as a strategy of amusement
females…
* cooperative, supportive feedback, hedges and boosters
both express solidarity and maintain relationships.
what did Goodwin investigate
difference approach
observed the group play of girls & boys. noticed that boys used different types of directives from girls.
what were Goodwins findings?
difference approach
- girls and boys use different linguistic means to express directives when playing in a same sex group
- males use aggrivated directives (gimme, get off)
- females use mitigated directives.
what did Goodwin conclude?
difference approach
that linguistic forms used- reflect the social organisation of the groups. ( girls are non-heirarchal and boys are heirachally organised)
what were wests investigation & findings
difference approach
- looked at directives between doctors and patients.
- found that male doctors used more aggrivated directives- while females used more mitigated ones
- the softer directivs of women were more successful in getting patients to do what was wanted.
what did Holmes investigate
difference approach
distinguished the different functions served by both hedges and tag questions
what were the broad groups that the hedge ‘you know’ was put into- HOLMES
difference approach
- where it expresses uncertainty
- where it expresses certainty
what were the different reasons tag questions were used- HOLMES
difference aproach
- model tags- express uncertainty
- facilitative tags- support the addressee
- softening tags- soften the force of a negative utterance.
what are the 4 theorists supporting the diversity model
- O’Barr and Atkins
- Cameron
- Hyde
- Butler
what was O’barr and Atkins study?
diversity approach
analysed 150 hours of criminal court trials- looking for the features that lakoff identified as womens language.
what were O’barr and Atkins findings?
diversity approach
- WL features are not the characteristics of all women
- WL features are not restricted to all women
- the use of WL features do not correlate with speakers gender.
what are the social factors O’barr and Atkins suggest?
diversity approach
- speakers social STATUS
- speakers previous EXPERIENCE of the courtroom
women are seen as powerless but due to their position in society- not gender.
what is D.Cameron’s study?
diversity approach
- states that fundamental gender differences is misleading
- fundamental difference in the language used by different genders is a MYTH and ignores social context
- it’s an issue of power and language
what is J.Hyde’s study?
diversity approach
found evidence for the Gender similarities Hypothesis.
what were J.Hyde’s study findings?
diversity approach
- show a small difference in most areas of communication in genders
- more similarities than differences in the way men and women use language.
what was J.Butler’s study?
diversity approach
- idea of gender performativity- suggesting that identities are unstable.
- argues we are constantly engaged in constructing gender
- we perform gender which is constructed by societies norms.
- CHALLENGES idea of biological determinism
what 4 theorists support the dominance model?
- zimmerman and west
- geoffrey beattie
- Esther Grief
- Pamela Fishman
what does the dominance approach suggest?
- sees men as dominant because of their social and political power
- men were seen as using language as a means to maintain or reinforce their power in conversations
what were Grief’s findings?
dominance model
- discovered 557 total interruptions
- men & women interrupted eachother with equal frequency
- interruptions do not necessarily have to reflect dominance but instead- reflect the interest and investment in the conversation
- context is crucial when analysing dominance in conversation.
what was zimmerman and wests study?
dominance approach
a college campus study- recording converations between mixed and same sex.
what were zimmerman and west’s findings
dominance approach
- women did not overlap men- only women
- men didnt let women speak
- men had minimal delayed minimal responses
- men attempt to be the dominating gender
what are the criticisms or zimmerman and wests research?
dominance approach
- small research group (not generalisable)
- only used all white, middle-class, men under 35
- recorded mixed gender and single gender conversations BUT only counted the mixed gender conversation.
what was Beattie’s study
dominance model
- came up with an alternative to zimmerman and wests study
- conducted discussions amongst university students
what did Grief study?
dominance approach
- examined sex differences in the use of interruptions and simultaneous speech, during conversations between parents and preschool children.
- parent-child semistructured play for 30 mins
what were Grief’s findings?
dominance model
- no significant difference between boys and girls in the use of interruptions & simultaneous speech.
- fathers interrupted more and spoke simultaneously more than mothers
- both parents were likely to interrupt child
- results indicate power differences between men & women
- sheds light on socialisation of gender roles
what did Pamela Fishman study?
dominance approach
- the theory of ‘interaction shitwork’
- suggest that in conversation, women do the donkey work but rarely benifit from the process
- focused on private conversations between couples
what were fishman’s findings?
dominance approach
- intersex conversation fails because of mens response or lack of.
- women have to make convo work, men do not try
- this was due to a womans inferior status in society
what was the further research fishman did?
dominance approach
how men and women used the following features:
* questions
* minimal responses
* attention getters
* topic initiation and uptake
