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Language and Thought > Language and Thought Essentials > Flashcards

Language and Thought Essentials Flashcards

1
Q

What did Perfors (2004) study? What were his results?

A

Attractiveness of men and women with the same face was mediated by the name they were given
Certain sounds were more attractive for names for men or women

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2
Q

What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) find?

A

Using different verbs when describing a car crash affected the speed people estimated the car to be going (9mph difference) and whether they reported seeing broken glass

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3
Q

What are the limitations of the Loftus and Palmer (1974) study?

A

used uni students whose estimations of speed may not be that good, might be evidence of memory reconstruction as opposed to false perception

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4
Q

What did Fausey and Boroditsky (2011) investigate?

A

The use of the passive construction in accidental events in Spanish and English speakers

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5
Q

What did Fausey and Boroditsky (2011) find?

A

Passive used more in Spanish than in English for accidents (same amount for intentional events)
Spanish participants were less likely to remember
who was responsible

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6
Q

Is there evidence that using more agentive constructions leads to more harsh punishment?

A

Fausey and Boroditsky (2010)
found that English participants were more likely to blame people and gave harsher punishments (53% more fines) when agentive phrases were used rather than passive ones

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7
Q

What do we know about English and Hebrew writing patterns?

A

They affect thought
Hebrew speakers order events RTL while English speakers order then LTR

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8
Q

What patterns can be found in how Chinese speakers order things?

A

de Sousa, 2012
they show ordering patterns that are consistent with changes in writing
writing used to be vertical but due to Westernisation, is sometimes horizontal now

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9
Q

What did Levinson and Majid (2013) find about writing systems?

A

Yeli Dnye speakers who have mainly not been schooled were asked to order events
there was a strong relationship between linear order and literacy
linguistic convention influences ordering of time
BUT evidence from chickens that there is a slight predisposition for LTR order

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10
Q

What did Bidelman et al. (2013) find?

A

Cantonese speakers have better pitch discrimination and melody perception than English speakers (comparable to English musicians) because they speak a tonal language

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11
Q

How can Bidelman et al.’s (2013) findings be developed?

A

Test them in other tonal languages and see if the findings can be replicated
Find ways to do tests within languages/cultures as culture is a confound

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12
Q

What did Berlin and Kay (1969) do?

A

studied basic colour terms in 20 languages (variety)
also devised a way of defining basic colour terms
theorised an implicational hierarchy for basic colour terms

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13
Q

What were the cons of Berlin and Kay’s (1969) research?

A

not the most representative sample, many speakers were bilingual from the US and from similar BGs, tested few people per language, used speakers and dictionaries

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14
Q

What were the pros of Berlin and Kay (1969)’s research?

A

groundbreaking method and standardisation of colours using the grid, and moving away from the notion that all languages view colours the same

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15
Q

How was Regier, Kay and Kheterpal’s (2011) experiment an improvement of Berlin and Kay’s (1969) work?

A

studied 110 non-literate languages
found similar results to B&K

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16
Q

What did Regier, Kay and Cook (2005) find?

A

That the best examples of colours cluster around the same ones as in English and closer together across languages than the centroids of each colour

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17
Q

What did Davidoff et al. (1999) do?

A

Compared Berinmo (grue language) to English
found that they were able to remember colour matches more accurately when they were across boundaries then when they were within the same boundary

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18
Q

What did Roberson and Davidoff (2000) do?

A

used verbal and visual interference to investigate whether language was used online in colour memory tasks in English speakers

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19
Q

What did Roberson and Davidoff (2000) find?

A

when language was useful (across colour terms) verbal interference had a negative effect on identification, but when it wasn’t useful (within colour terms) there was no negative effect of language

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20
Q

What did Thierry et al. (2009) do?

A

Studied preattentive change detection in Greek (2 blue terms, 1 green) and English (1 blue, 1 green)

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21
Q

What was Thierry et al. (2009) examining?

A

vMMN (visual mismatch negativity) elicited by deviant visual stimuli (odd-ones-out) regardless of focus

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22
Q

What did Thierry (2009) find?

A

significantly greater deviant score for blue than green in Greek participants, no significant difference in English ones
Difference in P1 latency based on colour and luminance for Greek ps, only luminance for English ps

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23
Q

What did Winawer (2007) study and find?

A

Russian speakers (blue/dark blue) and English speakers’ colour discrimination
had to match target blue to 2 options (within or accross boundary)
Russian speakers were quicker across than within but verbal interference (not spatial) removed this effect
no difference in english speakers and no effect of interference

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24
Q

What are the pros of Winawer (2007)?

A

Studied reaction time which is more subtle and resistant to intentional manipulation
Didn’t look at memory which is reconstructive not perceptual

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25
Q

What is one limitation of both Thierry et al (2009) and Winawer (2007)’s studies?

A

It could be argued that their findings are the effect of a reverse correlation - speakers were more cognisant of the difference between the colours so they created words to describe the difference they noticed

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26
Q

Describe Hasantash and Afraz’s (2020) study and findings.

A

tested colour matching (perception and memory) in Persian speakers to see whether colour vocab makes speakers more able to process colours
Found that more colour words improved colour memory but not perception
Also, less naming words for a colour correlated with more errors in memory based matching tasks

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27
Q

What are the pros of Hasantash and Afraz (2020)’s study

A

They were able to show that colour perception and memory are differentially affected by language
controlled for luminance
also tested effects of matching time (didn’t find anything)

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28
Q

What did Franklin et al. (2005) study and what did they find?

A

Preferential looking study for 4-month-old English babies to see if they have colour categories
Faster at detecting colours when between than within
Seem to have 5 colour categories at that age aligning with world ones but seems to shift when language is learned
colour discrimination exists before vocab to describe it

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29
Q

What are some limitations of Franklin’s (2005) study?

A

babies in Western countries may have learnt to differentiate colours through toys
should be replicated and compared for children in other cultures, esp. cultures without toys etc

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30
Q

What is Lindsey and Brown’s (2002) hypothesis?

A

Lens Brunescence hypothesis
correlation between grue languages and being nearer the equator
UV-B rays cause iris yellowing which makes it harder to differentiate blue and green

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31
Q

What evidence calls the lens brunescence hypothesis into question?

A

Hardy et al. (2005) found that lens brunescence doesn’t affect colour perception

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32
Q

Describe Johnson et al. (2005)’s study and findings.

A

Tested participants from Asia, Europe and southern Africa (17 langs) on colour grouping and naming
African countries often had loan words for certain colours
found that there was 1 factor that was relevant to grouping in all languages
did not find systematic differences based on language
all languages had more groups than BCTs - based on perception
larger number of BCTs –> larger number of secondary terms used for groupings but inconsistent
lower number of BCTs –> more random groupings/smaller groupings

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33
Q

What study could be done to follow up from Johnson et al. (2005)?

A

Given that African participants were using loan words but were also aged 30-45, could compare them to older generations who would be less likely to have used these loan words
give them experimental tests to see if their discrimination was better than older ones

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34
Q

What did Cain (1979) study and find?

A

asked men and women to name familiar odours
max correct was 50% even with feedback
never reached ceiling
women better than men

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35
Q

What did Gilad et al. (2004) study and find?

A

Correlation between non-human primates who have colour vision and those that have a higher number of olfactory receptor pseudo-genes

36
Q

What did Burenhult & Majid (2011) find out about the Jahai?

A

That they have a basic smell vocabulary - at least 14 words
smell words are verbs not source descriptors
psychologically salient and common in convo

37
Q

Describe the Majid and Burenhult (2014) study.

A

Tested Jahai and English speakers on colour and odour naming by asking them to freely name them
English speakers (texans) showed high agreement for colour but low for smell
jahai had the same level

38
Q

What are the limitations of the Majid and Burenhult (2014) study?

A

Many other differences apart from language: culture, lifestyle, population, environment, biology

39
Q

Which tribes did Majid and Kruspe (2018) investigate?

A

Semaq Beri (hunter gatherers) and Semelai (not HGs)
both speak languages related to the Jahai

40
Q

What did Majid and Kruspe (2018) find?

A

Semelai behaved very similarly to the English
had codable colour vocab but not smell vocab
suggests that the relationship might be more related to HG culture than to language

41
Q

Describe Valk’s (2017) study and findings?

A

Compared Dutch (source words), Maniq (basic smell vocab, HG) and Thai (smell vocab) on whether they could match odours to colours
Dutch and Thai were more consistent than Maniq

42
Q

What do Valk’s (2017) findings suggest?

A

People who have more source-based languages are more likely to associate smells with colours than those with basic smell terms
seems like how you talk about colours influences odour-colour associations
BUT THAI DID IT EVEN THOUGH THEY HAVE BASIC SMELL TERMS - western influence or post-industrial society?

43
Q

Describe Majid (2018)’s study and findings?

A

Speakers had to name odours and were recorded smelling them - verbal and emotional reaction
smells included decay, meat, faeces
Jahai named smells 6x faster than Dutch
Significant correlation between facial expressions, esp negative ones
suggested that smell-related emotions aren’t based on language

44
Q

What are the cons of Majid’s (2018) study?

A

facial expressions aren’t that consistent
a lot of the ps laughed after smelling the bad scent
difficult to pick up expressions etc

45
Q

What did Araujo et al. (2005) study and find?

A

same cheese smell considered to be more pleasant when described as cheddar cheese than when described as BO
when the same thing done with clean air, same pattern found
supported by fMRI which showed preferential activation of mOFC and ACC when smell was called cheddar/BO

46
Q

What did Herz (2004) find and how was it similar to Araujo et al. (2005)?

A

ratings of scents changed based on context
when no verbal info given, ps rather synthetic odours as more pleasant but when labelled they rated natural ones as more pleasant which correlated with overt attitudes towards natural and synthetic products

47
Q

How are Arshamian et al.’s (2022) findings a problem for the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

A

Studied 9 varied cultures with little interaction with civilisation and found that they gave odour rankings based on molecular identity (41%) and individual variation (54%)

48
Q

What did Cessna and Frank (2013) find?

A

tested whether accurate naming was related to memory
ps were presented with scents and asked to name them and indicate whether they were new or old
ps were better able to remember if scents were new/old if they named them previously

49
Q

What are the stats for Cessna and Frank’s (2013) study?

A

when participants named scents consistently, memory was correct 93% of the time, but when they named scents inconsistently, memory was correct 36%

50
Q

What evidence do we have that smell might be related to genetics?

A

Gisladottir et al. (2020) studied 10,000 Icelanders and found an association between TAAR5 gene and reduced intensity ratings for fish smell
found other genes associated with enhanced intensity ratings for liquorice and cinnamon

51
Q

What did Vanek et al. (2021) study and find?

A

English ps taught odour-label pairs with pseudo-words over a 4-day span
found that when odour-label pairs were consistent during learning, people were better able to learn them and identify similarities than when they were less consistent

52
Q

What do Vanek et al. (2021)’s findings suggest about the relationship between language and thought?

A

causal link between language and olfactory processing and supports a linguistic theory for improved olfactory abilities
supports the argument that languages with more dedicated basic vocab for odour are more likely to have consistent smell identification

53
Q

What did Gordon (2004) assert about the Piraha? What tests did he use to find this?

A

tested non-linguistic numerical cognition in different tasks e.g. line matching, nuts in a can
That they have no consistent counting system
only words for 1-3: a small number whose prototype is 1
linguistic determinism

54
Q

What are other explanations for Gordon’s (2004) findings?

A

cultural/environmental differences, task difficulty, population (lots of incest)

55
Q

What did Spaepen et al. (2011) find?

A

tested home signers and compared numerical cognition to unschooled hearing Spanish
home signers had jobs, money etc
held up signs with numbers and they had to report back
home signers don’t communicate exact numbers, more approximations

56
Q

What were the stats for Spaepen et al. (2011)?

A

linguistic
1-3 = 100%
3+ = 44% time unlimited

non-linguistic
1-3 = 93%
3+ = 33%

lowest score was 91% for Unschooled

57
Q

Describe Flaherty and Senghas (2011)’s study and findings.

A

Found that not all first gen Nicaraguan’s had learned to count consistently
younger gen knew how to count and had conventionalised signs
gave them a range of counting tests from 1-13
non-counters were worst, followed by late counters
adolescents were second after hearing
within culture there counting is essential to number manipulation

58
Q

Describe Miller et al. (1995)’s study and findings.

A

Chinese more simple counting system than English
Chinese children learn to count faster than American ones
Both similar at 3 but by 4, Chinese children’s proficiency has doubled

59
Q

What are the limitations of Miller et al. (1995)’s findings?

A

cultural differences, attitudes to education, multilingualism

60
Q

What did Dowker et al. (2008) find?

A

Compared Welsh and English speaking children from the same cultural BG
Welsh counting system is more regular than the English one but Welsh numbers are longer
Welsh children were better than English at reading and comparing numbers, less stutters and non-starts

61
Q

Compare Lefevre et al.’s (2010) and Dowker et al.’s (2008) studies?

A

Both comparing counting proficiency in languages with easier and more difficult counting systems
this one was French and English in the same culture - Canadian
and also studying preschoolers

62
Q

What did Bem and Bem (1973) find?

A

women and men are more likely to apply for jobs when gender neutral language is used
20% increase in women applying when a gender neutral term is used
further 20% increase when a pro-female term used

63
Q

What did Prewitt-Freilino et al. (2012) find?

A

categorised 11 languages into genderless, natural gender, and grammatical gender
controlled for geography, location, religion, gov and human development
found that natural gender languages showed more gender equality than both other types

64
Q

What did Guiora et al. (1982) find?

A

gave (no gender) Finnish, English and Hebrew (grammatical) images of children and other objects
found that Finnish children learnt their gender slower than the other two languages
gender marking can draw attention to gender and development

65
Q

What was Angorro & Gentner (2003)’s method?

A

comapred indonesian (age distinction in sibling relationships) and English (gender distinction) speakers
created stimuli that differentiated in age and gender
tested in linguistic and non-linguistic experiments on their conception of gender

66
Q

What did Angorro and Gentner (2003) find in their first experiment?

A

Found that Indonesian ps were more likely to extend a novel term to a context where the gender was different than English speakers

67
Q

What did Angorro and Gentner (2003) find in their second experiment?

A

non-linguistic study
indonesian ps were more likely to claim that a seniority variant (gender different, age consistent) matched than English participants
(gap was smaller)

68
Q

What did Angorro and Gentner (2003) find in their third experiment?

A

test of memory
English speakers had more false alarms related to gender variant whereas Indonesian speakers had more related to seniority variant (bigger difference for gender)

69
Q

What other considerations are there for the Angorro and Gentner (2003) study?

A

collectivist cultures tend to put more emphasis on seniority so may not be a language thing
should try it with languages that are more similar culturally

70
Q

Describe Sera et al (1994)’s methods and findings.

A

Asked Spanish and English children whether objects were masculine or feminine
Spanish speakers more likely to classify based on gender than English (71% vs 52%)
Follow up: asked adults and children whether certain characters should have male/female voices
Spanish children assigned voices based on grammatical gender (after 2nd grade)

71
Q

What was Boroditsky et al’s (2003) method?

A

taught Spanish and German speakers obj-name associations in English
apple > Patrick
apple > Patricia

72
Q

What did Boroditsky et al. (2003) find in their first study?

A

learned the association more easily when the names were consistent with grammatical gender
suggests that even in a second language, gender associations from the first were relevant

73
Q

What did Boroditsky et al. (2003) find in their second study?

A

Gave object names to participants in English and asked them to describe
English ps rated them on masc/femininity
adjectives were consistent with gender category of the words in the respective language

74
Q

What was Philips and Boroditsky’s (2003) method? (first)

A

non-linguistic
Spanish/German speakers had to say how similar a person-object pair was (1-9)

75
Q

What did Philips and Boroditsky (2003) find in their first study?

A

Greater similarity ratings between people and objects of matching grammatical gender than mis-matching

76
Q

Given some examples of word associations in Boroditsky’s (2003) second experiment?

A

key > hard, jagged
key > golden, intricate
bridge > beautiful, elegant
bridge > dangerous, strong

77
Q

What did Philips and Boroditsky (2003) find in their second study?

A

Tested Spanish and German bilinguals on the same task
Found that their ratings correlated with their level of fluency in the target language

78
Q

What did Philips and Boroditsky (2003) find in their third study?

A

used verbal interference for the same task
found that object-gender similarity judgements persisted under interference (so language not online)

79
Q

How could Philips and Boroditsky’s third study have been developed to tease the relationship between language and thought?

A

Could have also looked at reaction time/speed with and without interference to see if it had an effect

80
Q

What did Philips and Boroditsky (2003) find in their fourth study?

A

ps were taught a fictional language called Gumbuzi and essentially it was described as having a gender distinction (without the word gender used)
ps showed signs of grammatical gender on object representation through language training even under verbal interference and in a different language

81
Q

What evidence calls into question Boroditsky et al’s (2003) findings?

A

Mickan et al. (2014) failed to replicate the findings in the adjective generation task

82
Q

Describe Boutonnet et al’s study and findings (2012)

A

Tested Spanish and English speakers
ps were given 3 pictures that were the same or different grammatical gender
asked to judge whether they were semantically related and EEG responses were measured
found no effect of grammatical gender on behaviour
There was an N400 for grammatically incongruent sentences in both English and Spanish speakers
also a LAN for Spanish speakers for grammatical gender but not English speakers

83
Q

What did Kollmayer et al. (2018) find?

A

Priming German ps with gender fair language made them more likely to identify a gender neutral specialist as a woman (33 v 44%)

84
Q

What are the limitations of Kollmayer et al’s (2018) method?

A

the gender fair language that they used is also associated with the gender equality movement so it may have made that more salient rather than gender neutrality and this may have been the cause of the effect

85
Q

What did Vervecken et al (2013) find?

A

Tested Dutch and German children from 7-12
Found that when professions were presented in male and female pairs, the perception of women as successful increased (more in the eyes of the girls) and girls’ interested in these roles also increased

86
Q

What did Horvath et al. (2015) find?

A

When gender inclusive language was used, it worsened people’s perceptions of the profession and salaries were assumed to be worse as well

Language and Thought (2 decks)

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