language adolescents test 2 Flashcards
What is a Simple View of Reading
word level reading (can be taught): consists of decoding and linguistic comprehension.
Why did Kamhi think this was a good definition for now? (Simple View of Reading)
solution to the reading crisis in the US. it is possible to eliminate reading failure if reading is defined narrowly as decoding abilities. Reading proficiency levels would be expected to reach 90
What did Catts add? (Simple View of Reading)
a narrow view of reading promotes a broad view of comprehension that recognizes its complexity. Not only are there different levels of understanding (i.e., literal, analytic, creative), but comprehension also depends on thinking and reasoning processes that are domain and content specific rather than domain general.
Top-down model:
emphasizes the importance of scripts, schemata, and inferences that allow one to make hypotheses and prediction about the information being processed.
Bottom-up model
views spoken and written language comprehension as a step-by-step process that begins with the initial detection of an auditory or visual stimulus, then chunked into meaningful units
Interactive model:
both bottom-up and top-down processes contribute to reading and language comprehension. acknowledges that individuals must have proficient word recognition skills as well as higher-level linguistic and conceptual knowledge to be good readers.
what are the parallel processes for reading comprehension?
Visual Input—visual analysis—to both phonological representation and visual representation. Word meaning and sentence/text processing then interact back and forth. The end result is comprehension
What’s in your mental lexicon?
mental dictionary that contains information regarding a word’s meaning, pronunciation, syntactic characteristics
how do you use mental lexicon in speaking?
word meaning is accessed through a word’s phonological representation. The output of the perceptual analysis is a representation of a word’s acoustic and phonetic features.
how do you use mental lexicon in reading?
the reader locates the word in the lexicon and a match is made between the perceived visual configuration and a visual representation that is part of the mental lexicon for a particular word.
How does knowledge of structure (syntax & morphology), help one comprehend reading?
The cues include: word order, grammatical morphemes, and function words. they allow a person to break down words into sentences and understand what is being said/read
How does knowledge of propositions help one comprehend reading?
Listeners and readers use their knowledge of predicates and their inherent arguments to construct propositions.
How does knowledge of the world knowledge help one comprehend reading?
can be very broad, but we can construct meaning by using situation-specific world knowledge as listeners and readers. as we process discourse, we construct a mental/ situational model of the world as described by the discourses.
“understanding is the management of working memory,”
Comprehension is managed in a limited capacity working memory. Ex: when demands of comprehension exceed limitations of working memory, students comprehension decreases
Word Recognition Logographic stage:
visual cues/shapes
prephonetic (random string)
semiphonetic (some matches)
Word Recognition Alphabetic stage
- Underlies phonological decoding
- grapheme/phoneme correspondance (invented spelling)
Word Recognition Orthographic stage
- facilitated by decoding & spelling instructions
- morphophonological rules (reading)
- morphosyntatic rules (spelling)
What is the problem with Stage Theories in Word Recognition?
no empirical evidence
• focuses on what knowledge children need to become proficient readers instead of the mechanisms that underlie changes in reading proficiency.
•each stage is associated with only one type of reading, which implies that all words are read with the same approach at a particular stage.
•How a little knowledge becomes a lot of knowledge is not addressed.
•over-simplify development and obscure individual differences.
What is the Self-Teaching Hypothesis
idea that phonological decoding functions as a self-teaching mechanism that enables the learner to acquire the orthographic representations necessary for fast and accurate visual word recognition & for proficient spelling.
List any misconceptions about comprehension development that are really important for “reading to learn” stage.
b. when tests and teachers assume that each text has only one correct or best interpretation, students learn that to perform well in class and on tests, they simply need to reconstruct or restate the meaning of the text as presented by the teacher or guide-book.
- Comprehension is a unitary, generalizable skill that can be applied equally well to all texts.
- Comprehension is a unitary, easily measurable skill that develops in discrete measurable increments over the school years.
What 2 phonemic awareness tasks can kindergarten students do by the end of kindergarten according to Good, et al. and Torgesen & Morgan?
a. Segmenting sounds of 3 and 4 phoneme words
b. Blend individually presented sounds together to form words
What did Bird, Bishop, & Freeman determine about preschool children with speech and language impairments in terms of phonological awareness?
They appear to develop phonological and phonemic awareness slower when compared to their typically developing peers.
How do typical children compare with children with LI?
Young children with LI are 4-5 times more likely than their peers to have reading problems later in elementary school and beyond, half of kindergarteners with LI have reading disabilities by 2nd grade
Phonemic Awareness is important in learning to read for 3 reasons
- helps children understand the alphabetic principle and develop alphabetic knowledge.
- helps children notice the regular ways that letters represent sounds in words.
- helps children become flexible decoders
Are you surprised about PA?
PA activities might not give us enough information to make them worth the time it takes to administer them.
List 3 ways to measure Word recognition ability
(1) Word-reading accuracy (both in and out of context)
(2) Phonemic decoding skill
(3) Reading fluency
What does explicit and systematic instruction mean? Is this effective?
Explicit instruction includes modeling, guided practice, and immediate corrective feedback, and systematic instruction is based on a scope and sequence that moves from easier to more difficult tasks.
Is systematic instruction effective?
It is effective, especially when combined with other components of instruction
What do we know about poor responders?
- There is a fairly consistent relationship between low initial PA and treatment non-responsiveness (slow performance on rapid naming tasks, attention/behavior problems, low IQ, low verbal ability).
- 3 to 5 % of the general population of students will likely be poor responders to supplemental interventions
List stages of reading & spelling
- Emergent literacy period (birth to kindergarten)
- Logographic stage (transition to a phonetic or alphabetic stage of reading)
- Alphabetic stage (Begin to read words by processing sound-letter correspondences)• •Orthographic stage (automatic sight word recognition)
What is the problem with stage theories of spelling ?
o not supported by empirical evidence.
oThe focus is primary on what knowledge children need to become proficient readers
oEach stage is associated with only one type of reading,
oLittle attention is typically devoted to the actual development of the knowledge that characterizes these stages.
o oversimplify development and obscure individual differences
What is the alphabetic principle and what are challenges to the alphabetic principle?
The awareness that words have sound segments that are represented by the letters in print. Without at least emergent levels of phonemic awareness, the rationale for learning individual letter sounds and “sounding out” words is not understandable.
What does neighborhood density mean?
Neighborhood density refers to word recognition based on similar phonology and/or orthography and how many words a person can recall in a set about of time with set conditions.
What does sparse neighborhood mean?
refers to the few words that have the same rime (usually fewer than 5): -/ut/
What does dense neighborhood mean?
Dense neighborhood refers to the many words with the same rime:
High: more than 19: -at, -ight
intrinsic causes of reading disabilities
Genetic Basis Neurological Basis Visually Based Deficits Auditory Processing Deficits Attention-Based Deficits Language-Based Deficits Language Problems in Poor Readers
extrinsic causes of reading disabilities
Early Literacy Experiences
Reading Instruction
Matthew Effects
What are Matthew effects?
“the rich get richer and the poor get poorer”. Stanovich argued that because of low expectations, limited practice, and poor motivation, those who get off to a slow start in reading often get caught up in a downward spiral of failure
What is a definition of dyslexia?
Etymologically, dyslexia means difficulty with words.
an unexpected difficulty in reading/spelling/spoken language (word forming) for a cognitively typical or better person.
What ISN’T part of a definition of dyslexia?
NOT included is visual-processing disorder.
It’s an association and category difficulty.
The idea that dyslexia is just reading or writing backwards is not apart of dyslexia (very small portion of errors)
How are phonological awareness and phonemic awareness different?
Phonemic A is more specific and discrete and PA is more general.
Broccoli effects
occurs when children are forced to do something they do not like which, in turn, fosters negativity towards that activity
PA activity
ex: syllabic structure; rhymes
phonemic activity
EX: children must know of the distinctive features of a phoneme such as /l/ so they can recognize it when it occurs in slightly varied pronunciation like in “last” and “flat”.
Tasks that assess phonological awareness:
Identifying rhyming words, isolating initial sounds, blending, segmenting, manipulation
Tasks that assess phonemic awareness:
- Phoneme segmentation-counting, pronouncing, deleting, adding, or reversing individual phonemes in words
- Phoneme synthesis- sound blending tasks (i.e. “what word do these sounds make, /f/- /a/- /t/?)
- Sound Comparison- use different formats that require to make comparisons between the sounds in different words
Elision-
omission of a sound of syllable
Transposition-
phoneme transposition (the ability to swap sounds)
Intervention needs for literacy: explicit, systematic, and intentional
teachers who use an explicit core reading instructional program with a strong and systematic emphasis on code-focused skills are more likely to maximize reading outcomes for most children than those teachers who use less explicit and systematic programs
How does morphological awareness contribute to later reading and spelling?
Recognizing common morphemes or word endings can help children recognize new words. If a child knows “jump” and recognizing “-ing” then they might be able to read “jumping.”
Transparent changes:
no change in phonology or orthography
(teach—teacher)→ misstep; teach→ teacher
(the words still sound and look similar)
Opaque
divide→division
the words change phonetically and orthographically
List 4 types of linguistic knowledge for spelling
a. Phonological Awareness: Prerequisite for sounding out words.
b. Orthographic Knowledge: Letter/sound knowledge;
c. Morphological knowledge (& relationship to words meaning)
d. semantics
all= Mental graphemic representations (MGR): mental images of syllables, morphology, or words.
What is invented spelling? Is that a good thing or not?
“truck” written as “chruk.” Invented spelling is not an issue if the child is spelling out how the word actually sounds. It becomes an issue if the letters do not match the sounds.
Why is the rote memorization of spelling words less effective in teaching spelling?
rote memory is one word at a time with no instruction on the patterns needed, with no instruction on the knowledge blocks needed to correctly spell.
(reading)understanding is the construct of “inference generation,
involves world knowledge and generating inferences that are needed to make sentences cohere (local coherences) & relate to world text (global coherence).
(reading)understanding is the construction of coherent representations.”
the more coherent the text (discourse) the easier it is to understand. a text is fully connected if every proposition is conceptually connected to one or more other propositions.
Written language:
o Explicit phoneme/grapheme correspondence
o New human activity not biologically adapted
o Requires education
o Metalinguistic knowledge
Spoken language
o Auditory perception (subconscious)
o Biologically adapted to speak
o universal
o Not developed until 4 or 5 years
Include differences in middle school that may affect communication.
o Higher academic and communication demands in middle school now.
o Higher demands socially, and need communication skills to maneuver the social milieu.
o Multiple teachers with varied styles and modes of communication, different classroom rules
o Use already automatized skills (reading fluency) and increasing base of knowledge to gain information from material at middle/high school reading level
o Be able to retrieve prior knowledge of several different procedures
List 5 tips for student-centered assessment
- Tell the student what behaviors will be assessed
- Tell the student what tests/methods will be used and the purpose for each
- Tell the teens why the behaviors need to be assessed
- Emphasize that the skills assessed are important for school success and peer interaction
- Ask the student to do a self assessment
if sound or letter confusion are not caused by phonetic/visual confusion, what could be the cause
identification problems
spoken language= learning which phonetic difference make a different meaning
written language=which sounds are associated with which letters
semi transparent
change in phonology (inspect—inspection, /t/ to /sh/)
