Lab Practicum Exam 2 Flashcards
be able to label parts of the heart
(aorta, left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary trunk)
good luck!
the pericardium is a connective tissue covering that surrounds the heart in the thoracic cavity. It is made up of multiple layers. What is the sequence of the pericardial layers from most superficial to deep?
fibrous pericardium –> parietal pericardium –> pericardial cavity –> visceral pericardium
the valves that direct bloodflow from the atria to the ventricles are collectively called atrioventricular valves. However, each valve is also given a specific name. What is the name of the valve between the right atrium and right ventricle?
tricuspid valve
what is the name of the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle?
mitral / bicuspid valve
True of False: (correct if not true)
The atrioventricular valves are physically connected to the wall of the ventricle through long cord structures called papillary cords that connect to muscles on the ventricular wall call chordae tendinae
FALSE - the atrioventricular valves are physically connected to the wall of the ventricle through long cord structures called CHORDAE TENDINAE that connect to muscles on the ventricular wall called PAPILLARY MUSCLE
deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the ________________ while oxygenated blood enters the heart through the _________________
vena cava, pulmonary vein
be able to identify the main locations of baroreceptors and the nerves that innerverate them on the image below
(glossopharyngeal nerve, aortic baroreceptors, carotid baroreceptors, vagus nerve)
you’ve got this!
short term blood regulation of blood pressure does not involve changes in which of the following?
- blood vessel diameter
- blood volume
- heart rate
blood volume
an increase in MABP will result in?
increased arteriolar diameter
which hormone: decreases water loss through the kidney
ADH
(antidiuretic hormone)
which hormone: increases sodium and water loss through the kidney
ANP
(atrial natriuretic peptide)
which hormone: increases sympathetic activity, increases water and sodium retention by the kidney, vasoconstriction of arterioles
RAAS
(renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system)
when stimulated by angiotensin II, what are the result(s) of the adrenal glands?
stimulates release of aldosterone
when stimulated by angiotensin II, what are the result(s) of the brain?
- resets the baroreceptor reflex
- increase in thirst
- stimulates release of ADH
when stimulated by angiotensin II, what are the result(s) of the kidneys?
- reduces salt and water excretion
- rise in extracellular fluid
provide a brief description of Starling’s Law of the heart
there is a relationship between ventricular stretch and the force of contraction. When stretch is increased, the force of contraction is increased
In today’s lab you saw the effects of 2 neurotransmitters on contraction of the heart. What were those 2 neurotransmitters AND which branch of the autonomic nervous system do they belong to?
- acetylcholine (parasympathetic nervous system)
- epinephrine (sympathetic nervous system)
Pilocarpine is a muscarinic receptor agonist. Based on this function, how do you expect this drug to effect heart rate?
decrease heart rate
Physiologically, the frog heart functions the same as the mammalian heart. Contraction mechanisms and electrical conduction pathways are the same. However, there is one large anatomical difference between the frog heart and the mammalian heart. What is the difference?
there is only one ventricle in a frog heart where there are 2 ventricles in the mammalian heart
How to calculate heart rate in beats per minute?
count the ECG beats for a fixed amount of seconds and multiply to get a total 60 seconds
How to calculate contraction force?
if the curves do not reach to zero, look at the force at the bottom of the curve and the top of the curve and subtract to get the total force
Compared to room temperature conditions, application of warm ringer’s solution ___________ heart rate while cold ringers solution ___________ heart rate
increased, decreased
be able to label the structures of the respiratory system
soooo easy!!
What is the name of the thin, dome-shaped, sheet of skeletal muscle at the base of the ribs that is responsible for increasing and decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity during respiration?
diaphragm
Which statement regarding airflow resistance is false?
- an increased air density increases resistance to air flow
- resistance is determined by the pressure gradient and airflow rate
- the wider the tube, the greater the resistance to airflow
- resistance in the terminal bronchioles is lower than the primary bronchi
the wider the tube, the greater the resistance to airflow
What were the names of the 2 types of flow patterns of air through the respiratory tract? Where in the respiratory tract does each type of flow occur (upper or lower respiratory tract)?
- laminar (lower respiratory tract)
- turbulent (upper respiratory tract)
The respiratory tract can be divided functionally into 2 zones. The ___________ zone warms, humidifies, filters and carries the air to the terminal bronchioles.
conducting
Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening allergic reaction that results in symptoms such as an itchy rash, swelling of the eyes or tongue, and swelling of the respiratory bronchi. In regard to respiration, swelling of the bronchi causes obstruction of breathing due to constriction of the bronchial lumen. Based on what you know about surface area and resistance, what effect do you expect this to have on airflow resistance through the bronchi? Provide a brief description and why?
when the bronchi are constricted, the diameter of the tube will decrease and resistance will increase. This would decrease the amount of airflow through the bronchioles causing a difficulty to breath.
Label the layers of the pericardium and heart wall.
fibrous pericardium, parietal layer of pericardium, pericardial cavity, visceral layer of pericardium, myocardium, endocardium, heart chamber
Draw the path of blood as it flows through the heart starting from oxygenated blood entering the heart. Label the chambers and structures that blood passes through including the atria, ventricles, and valves.
You’ve got this!!
When you exercise, venous return of blood to your heart increases. Based on your knowledge of Starling’s law, what would happen to the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle per contraction (stroke volume) during exercise? Explain.
Due to exercise, the venous blood is increased to the heart, the ventricle will stretch. This increases stroke volume, so more blood will be pushed out of the heart with an increased force of contraction.
Pilocarpine and atropine are two pharmacological drugs that are commonly used to alter heart rate. Pilocarpine is a muscarinic receptor agonist while atropine is a muscarinic receptor antagonist. Based on functions of these drugs how do you expect each of them to affect heart rate? Explain the mechanism of action of each drug.
- Atropine is an antagonist, it inhibits the activation of acetylcholine receptors. Atropine will increase the heart rate. If acetylcholine is added to the heart there should be no effect.
- Pilocarpine is and agonist, it activates the acetylcholine receptors and will decrease heart rate.
It is a hot, humid day. Mei is lying on her high school’s sports field looking at clouds. She stands up quickly and immediately feels lightheaded and starts to faint. Luckily, her classmates notice and gently lower her to the ground before she collapses. Explain why Mei felt lightheaded and faint upon standing? What are the ways our body normally compensates for this problem?
When Mei was sitting her blood was pooling in her lower extremities due to gravitational pull. When she stood up quickly, her heart rate increased but stroke volume was unable to increase. So, because there was a decreased amount of blood being pushed out of the heart, there was not enough blood going to the brain causing her to faint. To compensate for this problem, our vessels use vasoconstriction to facilitate the blood volume, use valves to prevent back flow, skeletal muscle helps to move the blood, breathing, and the ability to use pressure to move blood into the right atrium.
Describe the mechanistic differences between short-term blood pressure regulation and long-term blood pressure regulation.
- Short term blood pressure is a change for a short period of time. This uses neural communication of the baroreceptors. This can cause peripheral vasoconstriction or vasodilation and mobilization of blood reservoirs.
- Long term blood pressure changes the overall blood volume going to the heart. This can be regulated by the kidneys and change the overall hormones in the body to regulate blood pressure.
Name the major players in the renin-angiotensis-aldosterone system (RAAS)
- Renin
- Angiotensin
- Aldosterone
How does renin effect blood pressure and blood volume regulation
- Renin is secreted by juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys in response to a decrease in blood pressure in the kidney arterioles, after sympathetic stimulation, and in response to prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) secretion by the adjacent macula densa cells. Renin is a protease that catalytically converts the peptide angiotensinogen in to angiotensin I. This will result in the generation of angiotensin II
- which ultimately will result in an increase in blood pressure and blood volume.
How does angiotensin effect blood pressure and blood volume regulation
- Angiotensinogen is a peptide produced by the liver. It circulates through the body and is enzymatically converted to angiotensin I by the enzyme renin in response to a decrease in MABP. Angiotensin I is further enzymatically converted into the effector peptide angiotensin II. Angiotensin II binds to angiotensin receptors on a variety of tissue that induces several responses. Binding to receptors in the vasculature results in vcasoconstriction and thus an increase in blood pressure. Binding of angiotensin II to receptors in the adrenal gland increases the release of the hormone aldosterone, which increases NaCl reabsorption from the kidneys, thus increasing blood pressure and blood volume.
- Lastly, binding of angiotensin II to receptors in the brain results in the secretion of the hormone antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which causes an increase in water reabsorption in the collecting ducts of the kidneys, thus increasing blood volume and blood pressure.
How does aldosterone effect blood pressure and blood volume regulation
- aldosterone is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal glands in response to a decrease in MABP. Secretion of aldosterone is induced by binding of the peptide angiotensin II to its receptors on the adrenal gland. Aldosterone acts at the level of the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of NaCl as well as the reabsorption of water back into the circulation.
- An increase in NaCl and water reabsorption leads to an increase in blood volume and ultimately an increase in blood pressure.
T or F: In respiratory physiology it is common to see turbulent flow in the upper respiratory tract and laminar flow in the lower respiratory tract
True
T or F: flow along a tube is driven by a difference in pressure
True
T or F: in general, an increase in cross sectional diameter of a tube will result in a greater resistance to airflow
False
T or F: the rate of flow along a tube is proportional to the pressure gradient
True
T or F: for any pressure gradient, more flow will occur when the flow is turbulent rather than laminar
False
Describe how the narrowing of Mila’s airways during an asthma attack affects resistance and airflow?
Resistance is a measure of the “difficulty” of flow. It results from friction between particles as they move in a gas, and from friction between the gas and the tube wall. It is affected by the dimensions of the airway (in this case, the radius of the airway). A decrease in cross-sectional diameter of the airway (i.e. narrowing of the airway) in asthma increases airway resistance, and decreases airflow through them. This is why Mila finds it hard to breathe during an asthma attack.
Mila uses an asthma inhaler to relax the smooth muscle that surrounds the airways. How might this allow her to breathe easy again?
In an asthma attack the airways may become narrowed due to contraction (spasms) of the smooth muscle that surrounds them. Therefore, an asthma inhaler that relaxes this smooth muscle will increase the radius of these airways. This will decrease resistance to airflow, allowing air to flow more freely, and allowing Mila to breathe easy again.
during a drop in blood pressure, prorenin changes into __________
renin
what is angiotensinogen? How does renin affect it?
- angiotensin is produced by the liver
- angiotensin is converted to angiotensin 1 by renin
what converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2?
angeotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
what is angeotensin 2?
a hormone that binds to tissues for various effects
(increasing blood volume and blood pressure)
effects of angeotensin 2
- stimulates vasoconstriction in systemic arterioles
- promotes Na reabsorption in the kidneys
- induces release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex
- stimulates the pituitary gland to release ADH
ADH
- antidiuretic hormone
- released from the pituitary gland
- promotes water retention in the kidneys
aldosterone
- released from the adrenal cortex
- promotes NaCl retention in the kidneys
triggers to release renin
- drop in blood pressure
- sympathetic nervous system
- macula densa cells detect a decrease in Na
Effect of angiotensin 2 and aldosterone on kidneys
- MABP decreases
- vasoconstriction decreases blood flow through the glomerulus
- decreased amount of salt and water are filtered
- less NaCl excreted from the body
- more NaCl and water remains in the blood
- MABP increases
what do the numbers mean in the blood pressure 120/80?
- 120 = systolic pressure
- 80 = diastolic pressure
what is MABP?
- mean arteriole blood pressure
- this is a single value rather than a range
- normal = 70-105 mmHg
direct measurement of blood pressure
- a catheter in the artery
- accurate but invasive, inconvenient, and impractical
indirect measurement of blood pressure
- stethoscope and sphygmomanometer
- systolic = first sound
- diastolic = last sound
korotkoff sounds
tapping sounds when listening for blood pressure
why does blood pool in the body?
- gravity
- veins are distensible (stretch and expand) NOT rigid
if someone stood up too fast why would they faint?
if blood pools in one area less blood is available to return to the heart. therefore venous return is initially decreased when we stand.
how can our body move pooled blood
- nerves regulate smooth muscle (vasoconstriction)
- veins have valves
- skeletal muscle
- diaphragm
- heart
what affects cardiac output (CO)?
heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV)
what increases stroke volume?
vasoconstriction of the veins
what decreases stroke volume?
- decrease in circulating blood volume
- decrease in venous return
- dehydration
- hemorrhage
short term blood pressure regulation
- acute and rapid changes
- neural communication (baroreceptors)
examples of short term blood pressure regulation
- sprinting
- standing
- hemorrhage
long term blood pressure regulation
- extended periods
- primarily revolves around blood volume maintenance
examples of long term blood pressure regulation
- high salt diet
- dehydration
- hemorrhage
carotid sinus
monitor blood going to the brain
aortic arch
monitor blood in the systemic circulation
blood volume is determined by…..
the AMOUNT of NaCl in ECF
what effect does less Na and water reabsorbed have on blood pressure?
decreases blood volume and blood pressure
what effect does more Na and water reabsorbed have on blood pressure?
increases blood volume and blood pressure
ANP
- atrial natriuretic peptide
- increases Na and H2O excretion
- decreases blood pressure
what increases sympathetic activity, increases water and sodium retention by the kidney and vasoconstriction of arterioles?
RAAS
what decreases water loss through the kidney?
ADH
what increases sodium and water loss through the kidney?
ANP
auricle
a muscular pouch of the atrium
coronary sinus
a structure that drains blood into the right atrium
pulmonary vein
a structure that drains blood into the left atrium
posterior interventricular suculus
an external boundary between the left and right ventricles
chordae tendinae
fibrous cords that connect papillary muscles to the cusps of the AV valves
trabeculae carnea
irregular muscular elevations of the ventricle walls
papillary muscle
muscles attached to AV valves and contained within the ventricles
pectinate muscle
parallel ridges of muscle within the atria
crista terminalis
muscular ridge separating the smooth and rough muscular portion of the right atrium
fossa ovalis
a small depression in the right atrium that is a remnant from fetal development
pectinate muscle
parallel ridges within the walls of the atria
atrioventricular valves
- tricuspid and mitral valves
- chordae tendinae and papillary muscle
- prevent back flow to the atrium
semilunar valves
- pulmonary and atrial valve
- prevent back flow to the ventricles
reside in anterior interventricular suculus
- anterior interventricular artery
- great cardiac vein
reside in posterior interventricular suculus
- posterior interventricular artery
- middle cardiac vein
originate from aorta
- left coronary artery
- right coronary artery
reside in coronary suculus
coronary sinus
2 circuits of the circulatory system
- pulmonary
- systemic
pericardium and layers of the heart
fibrous pericardium –> serous pericardium (parietal pericardium, pericardial cavity, visceral pericardium) –> epicardium –> myocardium –> endocardium
ECG
- electrocardiogram
- electrical activity of the heart
P wave
atrial depolarization
QRS complex
ventricular depolarization
T wave
ventricular repolarization
why is there a delay in ventricular contraction?
the AV node slows down depolarization so there is a delay in contraction in the ventricles
pilocarpine is an agonist meaning…
is stimulates the ACh receptors decreasing the heart rate
atropine is an antagonist meaning…
it blocks ACh receptors
upper respiratory tract
- nasal cavity
- pharynx
- larynx
lower respiratory tract
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- alveoli
functions of respiratory epithelium in the upper respiratory tract
- secretes mucus and fluid (goblet cells)
- fne hairs (cilia) and mucus trap dust particles and microorganisms
- increase turbulence
- large surface area to help warm, filter and humidify air
mucocillary clearance
cilia beat constantly to push mucus upward toward the pharynx where it can be expelled by cough or swallowed
the primary muscle used for breathing
diaphragm
muscles used in inspiration
- diaphragm
- external intercostals
muscles used in forced expiration
- abdominals
- internal intercostals
turbulent flow
- disorganized flow, moving in all directions, results in greater flow resistance
- upper respiratory tract
laminar flow
- organized with layers moving in the same direction, lower resistance
- lower respiratory tract
why is it more effective to breath through the nose than the mouth?
when you breath through your nose it causes more turbulent flow than the mouth. It will come into contact with the respiratory epithelium. air is warmed and humidified and particles are trapped.
what occurs during an asthma attack?
smooth muscle tightens around bronchioles causing a greater resistance and a decrease in the rate of airflow
what occurs when you use and inhaler during an asthma attack?
relaxation of smooth muscle will decrease the resistance of air in the bronchioles and will increase air flow
conducting zone
- function is to warm, humidify, filter, and conduct air to the respiratory zone
- high resistance
respiratory zone
- bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli, gas exchange occurs passively
- low resistance
T or F: an increased air density increases resistance to airflow
true
T or F: resistance is calculated from the pressure difference divided by flow rate
true
T or F: the longer the tube, the greater resistance to flow
true
T or F: the wider the tube, the greater the resistance to flow
false
anatomical features of bronchi
- large diameter
- more cartilage
- less smooth muscle
- thicker epithelium
anatomical features of bronchioles
- smaller diameter
- less cartilage
- more smooth muscle
- thinner epithelium
Q = P / R
- Q = flow rate
- P = pressure gradient
- R = resistance
