Lab Exam: Terminology Flashcards
Sagittal Plane
(Lateral Plane)
A vertical plane dividing the body left from right.
Coronal Plane
(Frontal Plane)
A vertical plane dividing the body anterior from posterior
Transverse Plane
(Axial Plane)
A horizontal plane dividing the body superior from inferior.
Median Plane
A Sagital plane cut through the midline of the body, dividing left and right equally.
Dorsal
Back side
Posterior
Rear
Ventral
Belly side
Anterior
Front
Superior
Cranial or Upper
Inferior
Caudal or Lower
Peristalsis
Waves of muscle contraction along digestive tracts like the esophagus or intestines.
Epiglottis
A flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue that is depressed during swallowing to block the windpipe (trachea).
Pyloric Sphincter
A sphincter that regulates passage from the stomach to the duodenum of the small intestine.
Lower Esophageal Sphincter
A sphincter that prevents back-flow of bile from the stomach to the esophagus.
Pepsin
An enzyme produced by the stomach that breaks down proteins into polypeptides
Bicarbonate
Excreted by the pancreas to regulate pH levels in the small intestine. It is a base that neutralizes the acidity of bile.
Bile
Secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, it emulsifies lipids.
Amylase
An enzyme produced in the salivary glands and the pancreas that breaks carbohydrates down into simpler sugars.
Villi
Tiny hair-like protrusions that increase surface area and facilitate absorption in the small intestine.
Nephron Functions
- Glomerular Filtration: The process of filtering blood of excess fluid and waste products.
- Tubular reabsorption: Water, nutrients, and ions are reabsorbed.
- Tubular Secretion: Toxins and H+ ions are actively secreted from the blood into tubules.
- Excretion: Urine is produced
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
A hormone that promotes water reabsorption in the kidneys. Produced when body needs to conserve water.
Spermatogenesis
The process in which a primordial germ cell undergoes mitotic and meiotic division to produce sperm cells
- Primordial Germ Cell x1
- Primary Spermatocyte x1
- Secondary Spermatocyte x2
- Spermatids x4
- Spermatozoa (Sperm cells) x4
Oogenesis
The process in which a primordial germ cell undergoes mitotic and meiotic division to produce an egg cell.
Only one ovum (egg) is produced from Oogenesis.
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
(HCG)
A hormone that stimulates the Corpus Luteum into producing progesterone to maintain pregnancy.
Cardiac Cycle
Diastole: Heart relaxes and the chambers fill with blood.
Aortic & Pulmonary Valve: Closed
Tricuspid & Mitral valve: Open
Atrial Systole: The L&R Atrium contract and force blood into the ventricles.
Aortic & Pulmonary Valve: Closed
Tricuspid & Mitral valve: Open
Ventricular Systole: L&R Ventricle contract. Blood pushed out of the ventricles and to the body and lungs.
Aortic & Pulmonary Valve: Open
Tricuspid & Mitral valve: Closed
Plasma
55% of blood
- Water
- Ions
- Plasma proteins
- Stuff
Cellular Elements of Blood
45% of blood
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells (Leukocytes)
- Platelets
Semilunar Valves
- Pulmonary Valve
- Aortic Valve
Atrioventricular Valves
- Tricuspid Valve
- Mitral Valve
Ventricular Systole
Semilunar valves: Open
Atrioventricular valves: Closed
Ventricle Contracts
Blood is squirted out of the ventricles out the pulmonary artery and the aorta artery.
Atrial Systole
Semilunar valves: Closed
Atrioventricular valves: Open
Atrium Contracts
Blood is pushed into the ventricles to fill them up fully
Diastole
Semilunar valves: Closed
Atrioventricular valves: Open
All chambers relaxed
Blood flows passively into the chambers
Blood Pressure
Systole/Diastole
How to take blood pressure reading
- Place cuff 1 inch above brachial artery at bend of elbow.
- Estimate systolic pressure by feeling brachial artery (below cuff) and inflating the cuff until you can’t feel the pulse anymore.
- Inflate cuff to 30mmHg above the estimated systolic pressure.
- Place bell of the stethoscope beneath the cuff on the brachial artery.
- Turn knob to release pressure slowly (2mmHg per second)
- The systolic pressure is when you can begin hearing the heartbeat.
- The diastolic pressure is when you can no longer hear the heartbeat.
Tympanic Membrane
- Also known as the eardrum.
- A thin membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
- Transmits sound from the air to the ossicles in the middle ear.
- Also protects the middle and inner ear from pathogens and debris.
Auditory Ossicles
Tiny bones of the middle ear involved in the translation of air based sound of the outer ear to liquid based sound of the cochlea.
- Malleus
- Incus
- Stapes
Cochlea
Hollow spiral bone shaped like a snail shell. It is fluid filled.
Contains the Basilar Membrane and the Organ of Corti.
Pinna
The outer ear.
Made of cartilage and skin.
Hearing Process
- Sound waves are collected by the Pinna (outer ear).
- Those waves travel through the ear canal to the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
- The sound is amplified and by the ear ossicles (tiny bones).
- Air based sound is converted to liquid based sound in the cochlea, which vibrates the basilar membrane.
- Hair cells of the basilar membrane perform sensory transduction to translate the vibrations to electrical signals.
Basilar Membrane
A membrane that separates the scala media and the scala tympani fluids within the cochlea.
The basilar membrane moves up and down in response to sound waves, which are converted to electrical signals by hair cells.
Oval Window
The membrane between the middle ear and the inner ear, facilitating the translation of air based sound to liquid based sound of the cochlea.
Hair Cells
Sensory receptors of the auditory and vestibular (balance) system.
Hair cells are afferent sensory neurons that function as mechanoreceptors.
Sound deflects the stereocilia of the cell, which triggers the release of neurotransmitters at the basal end of the cell. This neurotransmitter then induces action potentials to be generated at a nerve terminal.
How is Loudness & Pitch Coded?
Loudness: Louder sounds cause more hair cells to be stimulated, which is interpreted by the brain to be loud.
Frequency: The basilar membrane vibrates at different frequencies across the cochlea. The position of the stimulated hair cells within the basilar membrane determines the interpreted frequency.
Eyeball structure
General Layers:
1. Sclera
2. Choroid
3. Retina
Forward Structures:
1. Cornea
2. Iris & Pupil
3. Lens
Eyeball layers
- Sclera
- Choroid
- Retina
Cornea
- The outermost forward structure of the eye. Transparent.
- The cornea refracts light, contributing most of the eye’s focusing power (along with fluid and the lens).
- The focus of the cornea is fixed.
Lens
- A forward structure underneath the iris and pupil of the eye. Transparent.
- Refracts light, focusing it onto the retina.
- Can adjust the focal length of the eye, enabling it to focus on objects at varying distances.
Sclera
- The white outer layer of the eye.
*Protective function
Choroid
- The middle layer of the eye.
- Provides oxygen and nourishment to the retina.
Retina
- The innermost layer of the eye.
- The retina contains the photoreceptor cells that detects light and converts it into electrical signals.
Layers of Retina
1. Ganglion Cells
2. Bipolar Cells
3. Photoreceptor Cells (Rods & Cones)
4. Pigmented Epithelium
Rod Photoreceptors
Photoreceptors of the retina that functions in dim light and provide monochromatic vision.
Cone Photoreceptors
Photoreceptors of the retina that functions in well-lit conditions and provides color perception.
Iris
A thin structure under the cornea that contains a sphincter muscle that contracts the iris to control the amount of light received by the retina.
Pupil
The pupil contains a muscle called the pupillary dilator that expands and contracts the pupil size.
Ciliary Muscle
A muscle within the choroid layer that can expand and contract the lens of the eye to adjust focus (focal length)
How does light effect neurotransmitters?
Light stops inhibitory neurotransmitters.
NA⁺ channels are open in darkness (depolarized)
Depolarized photoreceptors release inhibitory neurotransmitters.
NA⁺ channels are closed in light (hyperpolarized)
Post synaptic cell generates action potentials due to absence of inhibitory neurotransmitters
Skeletal Muscle
- Long, fiber-like striated cells with multiple nuclei.
- Attached to bones.
- Controlled through voluntary means.
Cardiac Muscle
- Branching striated cells with intercalated discs between cells.
- Forms the walls of the heart.
- Controlled through involuntary means.
Smooth Muscle
- Non-striated cells that are thin at each end with a bulging middle.
- Responsible for GI tract movement
- Controlled through involuntary means
Sarcomere
Repeating longitudinal myofibril filaments are called sarcomeres.
Myofibrils
Protein filaments within muscle cells.
Flexion
Movement that decreases the angle of a limb
Extension
Movement that increases the angle of a limb
Axial Skeleton
- Skull
- Vertebral Column
- Hyoid
- Ear Ossicles
- Sternum
- Ribs
Appendicular Skeleton
- Limbs
- Pelvic Bones
- Pectoral Limb Girdle
Population
Number of individuals belonging to a species in a specified area at a specified time.
Grid-Based Population Estimation
- Divide a specified area into a grid.
- Count the population of the species in each grid quadrant.
- Average the numbers of each quadrant
- Extrapolate to the total area.
Mark-Release-Recapture Population Estimation
N = (M*C)/R
N: The estimated number of individuals within the population
M: The individuals that were caught and tagged
C: The total number recaptured (with and without marks)
R: The number of recaptured individuals with a tag
