LAB EXAM Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Compound Light Microscope Parts

Question 2

Q

Magnification def

Answer

A

Apparent increase in size of the specimen

Question 3

Q

Resolution def

Answer

A

Ability to distinguish two objects that are close together

Question 4

Q

Contrast def

Answer

A

Ability to distinguish an object from its background

Question 5

Q

Compound Light Microscope parts: eyepiece

Answer

A

AKA Ocular lens
Magnifies image by 10x
Does NOT help resolution
May include pointer

Question 6

Q

Compound Light Microscope parts: Objective lenses

Answer

A

Magnify AND increase resolution

SCANNER: 4x (find object)

LOW POWER: 10x (examine larger features)

HIGH POWER: 40x (detailed examination)

Question 7

Q

Microscope parts: Coaxial Corse & Fine Focus Knob

Answer

A

Moves stage up and down
Corse focus: use only w/ scanner and low power lens

Question 8

Q

Microscope parts: Coaxial Stage Motion Knob

Answer

A

Large part at top = front and back
Small part at bottom = side to side

Question 9

Q

Compound Light Microscope parts: Condenser

Answer

A

Focuses light from lamp
Adjustment knob moved it up or down
Aperture iris diaphragm: controls angle (contrast)
Held in place and centered by centring screws

Question 10

Q

Microscope parts: Field iris diaphragm

Answer

A

Part of the lamp
Controls the width of the beam of light
Adjust contrast

Question 11

Q

How to calculate Magnification

Answer

A

Ocular lens x objective lens

10x40=400x

Question 12

Q

Parfocal System

Answer

A

Field of view will remain in focus as you change objective lense

Question 13

Q

Depth of Focus

Answer

A

Distance between lens and object required for image to be in focus
AKA working distance
Larger for 4x and very narrow for 40x

Question 14

Q

Field of view size for each lens

Answer

A

Scanner: 4x: 5mm (i.e. 10/4 of low power)
Low power: 10x: 2mm (i.e. 4/10 of scanner)
High Power: 40x: 0.5mm (i.e. 1/4 of low power)
1mm = 1000 microns µm

Question 15

Q

Brownian Movement

Answer

A

The continuous RANDOM movement of particles in water
Robert Brown

Question 16

Q

Diffusion

Answer

A

NET movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
They move down the concentration gradient
We say NET movement because some particles may go towards more concentration, but the total net movement is towards lower concentrations

Question 17

Q

Heavy vs light molecule diffusion

Answer

A

Light molecule travels faster because it requires less kinetic energy to move its light load.
Size, shape, temperature also affect how fast a molecule will diffuse.

Question 18

Q

How can materials PASSIVELY enter or exit a cell?

Answer

A

Diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer
Facilitated Diffusion (through channels or carrier proteins)
Passive does not cost the cell any energy

Question 19

Q

How can materials ACTIVELY enter or exit a cell?

Answer

A

Active transport
Cytosis

Question 20

Q

Diffusion in or out of cells

Answer

A

Phospholipid bilayer is semi-permeable
CO₂ and O₂and H₂O (slowly) can pass via DIFFUSION
*

Question 21

Q

Osmosis

Answer

A

Diffusion of H₂O across a selectively permeable membrane

Question 22

Q

Channel Proteins

Answer

A

Provide an opening in the phospholipid bilayer through which specific small molecules can diffuse
Uses NO ENERGY
Can be gated
Aquaporin: a channel protein for water

Question 23

Q

Carrier Protein

Answer

A

Pick up a specific molecule on either side of the phospholipid bilayer and brings it across
No energy used
Also diffusion (because goes from an area of high concentration to one of lower concentration

Question 24

Q

Active Transport

Answer

A

Will move molecules to a desired side of the phospholipid bilayer regardless of concentration gradient.
Requires energy from the cell
Cell can maintain higher or lower concentration than environment

Question 25

Q

Cytosis

Answer

A

Pocket formed in cell membrane which forms a vacuole around molecule to transport it in or out of the cell
Requires energy
Endocytosis: goes inside cell
Exocytosis: Exits cell

Question 26

Q

Isotonic

Answer

A

Same concentration there as in comparison area

Question 27

Q

Hypertonic

Answer

A

Higher concentration of solute than in compared solution
If A is hypertonic to B, then B has a higher concentration of water than A

Question 28

Q

Hypotonic

Answer

A

Concentration of solute is lower than in compared solution
In the hypotonic solution, the concentration of water is higher than in the compared solution

Question 29

Q

Turgidity

Question 30

Q

Plasmolysis or crenulation

Answer

A

Too little H₂O, so the cell collapses

Question 31

Q

Haemolysis

Answer

A

In blood cells
Too much water to the cell bursts

Question 32

Q

Binary Fission

Answer

A

Prokaryotes
Single cell splits in two
Each has the same genotype as the parent cell

Question 33

Q

Mitotic Cell Division

Answer

A

Eukaryotes
Produces two nearly identical cells

Question 34

Q

Phases of Cell Cycle

Answer

A

Interphase (longest phase)

G1 - Gap 1: cell builds protein and grows
S - Synthesis of DNA: cell grows and copies DNA
G2 - Gap 2: cell grows and does final preps

Mitotic Phase

Mitosis: Division of nucleus
Cytokinesis: Division of cell

Question 35

Q

Chromatin

Answer

A

DNA mixed with proteins
Inside nucleus during interphase

Question 36

Q

Chromosome

Answer

A

Humans have 46, very coiled
They copy have 92 chromatids
Each chromatid is bound to another at centre by centromere, so it still leaves 46 chromosomes
Chromosome = 2 chromatids bound by centromere

Question 37

Q

Mitosis phases

Answer

A

Prophase (prepare): Chromosomes codense, nucleolus starts to disappear, spindle starts forming. Cell gets rounder (animal cells only)
Prometaphase: Nuclear envelope breaks up, spindle attaches to centromere and begins to pull. Centrosomes begin to move to sides of cell (animal cells only)
Metaphase (middle): Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell on the cell plate
Anaphase (away): Chromatids break free of each other and are pull to either end by spindle. Each free chromatid is now considered a chromosome. Cell elongates (animal cells only)
Telophase (two): Spindle begins to disappear, chromosomes start to disperse, nucleoli and its envelope begin to assemble. In plant cells, a new cell wall (cell plate) begins to form. In animal cells, cell begins to pinch, forming the cleavage furrow.

Question 38

Q

Meiosis

Answer

A

Produces haploid (n) cells from diploid
Not part of the cell cycle
Involves 2 cell divisions (Meiosis 1 and 2)
Creates 4 daughter cells

Question 39

Q

Meiosis 1

Answer

A

Prophase 1: (Includes prophase and prometaphase). Chromosomes condense next to their homologue = homologous pair = crossing over
Metaphase 1: Homologous pairs line up on metaphase plate
Anaphase 1: Entire homologous pairs pulled apart = half the amount of chromosomes = 1n

Question 40

Q

Meiosis 2

Answer

A

Starts with 2 n cells
Same phases as Meiosis 1
Produces 4 n cells
n = haploid “half”

Question 41

Q

Spermatogenesis

Answer

A

Primary spermatocyte (2n) begins meiosis 1
It creates 2 secondary spermatocytes (n), which undergo meiosis 2
Creates 4 spermatids (n)
Spermatids mature to become spermatozoa

Question 42

Q

Oogenesis

Answer

A

Primary oocyte (2n) begins meiosis 1 and produces 1 secondary oocyte (n) (which kept almost all the cytoplasm during cytokinesis) and a polar body
The secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis 2, producing one ootid (n) and one polar body
The ootid matures to become an ovum
When the ovum is fertilized by a spermatozoan, it becomes a zygote

Question 43

Q

Spermatogenesis (identify parts)

Answer

A

Name parts in attached image
Inside the seminiferous tubule:
Outer layer = spermatogonia which create more of themselves
Spermatagonia push inwards and become large primary spermatocytes which begin meiosis 1
This produces smaller secondary spermatocytes, pushed more towards the middle. they start Meiosis 2
This results in tiny spermatids near the lumen (hollow center)
The spermatids then migrate towards Sertoli (nurse) cells, which nourish them until maturity (spermatozoa with flagella)

Question 44

Q

Oogenesis (identify parts)

Answer

A

Before birth, girls have thousands of oogonia that have begun meiosis 1
They become primary oocytes and stop right before metaphase 1
When menstrual cycle begins, one at a time
Primary follicle is developed and contains the primary oocyte
Primary follicle grows x10 and begins to bulge out of the surface of the ovary as meiosis 1 is completed (it then contains a secondary oocyte)
At ovulation, the follicle ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte from the ovary.
The ruptures follicle remains inside ovary and is called corpus luteum, which will eventually break down
The secondary oocyte is picked up by the fallopian tube and migrates towards the uterus
If a spermatozoan comes in contact with it, meiosis 2 will start
Once meiosis 2 is finished, then the spermatozoan and ovum fuse and become a zygote

Question 45

Q

Phenotype

Answer

A

Observable trait
If you have the phenotype of the recessive allele, then you def have homozygous recessive genotype
If you have the phenotype of the dominant allele, then you could be homozygous dominant or heterozygous

Question 46

Q

Genotype

Answer

A

Combination of alleles
Diploid can be either homozygous or heterozygous
Homozygous (both alleles are the same at those loci (both dominant or recessive)
Heterozygous (you have both types dominant and recessive alleles)
Meiosis creates the alleles for the haploid cell

Question 47

Q

Dominance vs recessive

Answer

A

An allele can be dominant (capital letter) or recessive (same letter as dominant, but small)

Question 48

Q

True breeding vs hybrid

also

monohybrid VS dihybrid cross

Answer

A

True breeding: all individuals have the genotype AA or aa
Hybrid: diploid organism that has one of each allele, so Aa
Monohybrid cross: a hybrid cross when we are looking at a single trait
Dihybrid cross: a hybrid cross when we are looking at two traits simultaneously (ex: kernel colour and kernel texture)
In a dihybrid cross punnet square, we would put one allele for teach trait together, ex: AB, Ab, aB, etc… as each of the 4 parents

Question 49

Q

Generation names

Answer

A

P = parental
F1: first generation (offspring of P)
F1: second generation (offspring of F1)
etc…

Question 50

Q

Evolution def

Answer

A

A change in the frequency of alleles in a population

Question 51

Q

What two processes can result in evolution?

Answer

A

Genetic drift: a change in allele frequency due to chance
Natural selection: greater reproductive rate as a result of having a particular trait

Question 52

Q

If you suffer from a rare genetic disorder that is caused by a recessive allele at a single locus, and neither your parents nor your brother have the disease, what is the probability that your brother is a carrier?

Answer

A

2 chances on three
25% homozygous healthy
25% homozygous sick (me)
remaining 50% is carrier
Since I take myself out of the probability, it means brother has 2 chances on the remaining 3

Question 53

Q

DNA def

Answer

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid
Long string of nucleotides each of which has one of the four bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)
The sequence of these bases directs the production of specific RNA or protein
Only 1.5% of human DNA codes for RNA

Question 54

Q

DNA Sequencing

Answer

A

Finding the sequence of G, T, C and A from a sample
Time consuming and expensive
Easier to compare two sets of DNA through gel electrophoresis

Question 55

Q

Gel electrophoresis

Answer

A

Restriction enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific sequence of bases, resulting in DNA fragments of different lengths (which is specific for each individual)
Fragments of DNA move through gel. We increase their speed with an electric current (DNA negative, so attracted to positive pole)
Smallest fragments will be fastest. This creates bands.
Each band has DNA fragments of a particular size, unique to each individual = DNA fingerprint

Question 56

Q

Why do we use a warm lysis solution in DNA extraction?

Answer

A

The heat will denature (break down the tertiary and quaternary structures of) the proteins in the cytosol that would damage DNA as the cell is broken up
It contains 4 chemicals (SDS, Sodium citrate, Sodium chloride, EDTA)

Question 57

Q

What is each chemical in the lysis solution for?

Answer

A

SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate. A strong detergent that allows lipids (or other nonpolar compounds) to mix with water. This allows the DNA to exit the phospholipid bilayer.
Sodium Citrate: Helps inactivate enzymes to prevent them from damaging DNA
Sodium Chloride: table salt. Proteins do not stay dissolved well in salt water. Prevents the DNA from dissolving in the ethanol
EDTA: EthyleneDiamine Tetraacetic Acid. A magnesium ion chelator. A chelator removes ions from a solution. Ions in the solution help to stabilize the phospholipid membranes and also activate the enzymes that would break up DNA.

Question 58

Q

Why do we need to cool the DNA and lysis mixture after the lysis has done its work?

Answer

A

DNA molecules are less likely to break if kept cool

Question 59

Q

Transcription

Answer

A

A sequence of bases in DNA is transcribed into a sequence of bases in RNA
The main molecule that accomplishes transcription is RNA polymerase, which binds to DNA at a specific sequence of bases (promoter sequence)
RNA polymerase will then move away from the 3’ end towards the 5’ end
As RNA polymerase moves, it builds a strand of RNA growing from its 5’ to its 3’ end with complementary bases
This process stops at a terminator sequence

Question 60

Q

RNA complementary bases

Answer

A

Guanine - sticks to DNA’s cytosine

Cytosine - sticks to DNA’s guanine

Adenine - sticks to DNA’s thymine

Uracil - sticks to DNA’s adenine

Question 61

Q

Translation

Answer

A

The sequences of bases in RNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a protein
Performed by a ribosome
Initiated at a specific RNA sequence (start codon) AUG
Reads away from the RNA’s 5’ end towards the 3’ end
The ribosome ads one amino acid to the protein for each codon. It also ads one amino acid MET for the start codon
Continues until a stop codon is reached
At stop codon, the chain of amino acids (unfolded protein) is released. So is the ribosome.

Question 62

Q

Codon

Answer

A

A sequence of three RNA bases

Question 63

Q

In electrophoresis, after exposure to electric current, the gel is immersed in a warm stain solution. Why?

Answer

A

The heat helps the diffusion process
The stain sticks only to the DNA, allowing us to see distance travelled

Question 64

Q

A super long piece of DNA is cut between bases 25000 and 25001, then between 50000 and 50001. How many bands will you see and why?

Answer

A

3

one piece from 0 to 25000, one from 25001 to 50000, and one piece from 50001 to the end.

Answer 63

A

Domain (eukaria, archaea, bacteria, …)
Kingdom (animalia, plantae…)
Phyla (chordata, arthropoda…)
Class (mammalia, aves, …)
Order (carnivora, …)
Family (felidae, …)
Genus (panthera)
Species (panthera tigris)

Answer 64

A

prokaryotes
no membrane-bound nucleus
covered by a cell wall
divide by binary fission
chemoheterotrophic (obtain carbon from organic molecules and energy from chemicals
Most abundant organisms in the world
Unicellular

Answer 65

A

Round: coccus (these tend to stick together in a pile in the microscope)
Stick-shaped: bacillus
Spiral: spirillum (these look like pubes under the microscope)

Answer 66

A

Spirillum

Answer 67

A

Of the domain bacteria
Photoautotroph, but no chloroplasts
aka blue-green algae
single-celled, but often, cells stick together in filaments
covered by a mucous or gelatinous sheath
not motile
under harsh conditions, some might become achinetes (inactive cell encased in a protective shell until better conditions)
Oscillatoria and anabaena

Answer 68

A

oscillatoria

(bacteria - cyanobacteria)

Answer 69

A

anabaena

(bacteria - cyanobacteria)

Answer 70

A

Cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and other organelles
Divide by mitosis and sometimes meiosis
evolved from prokaryotes 2 billion years ago
*

Answer 71

A

plantae
animalia
fungi
the rest are referred to collectively as protista

Answer 72

A

domain eukaria
unicellular
photoautotrophic
cells enclosed in a hard outer shell (testae)
made of 2 overlapping halves like a shoe box with lid
shell composed of silica
geometric shapes
some have motility moving along their raphe (slit opening in their shell)

Answer 73

A

domain eukaria - protists
multicellular
photoautotrophic
marine
cell wall composed of cellulose and polysaccharides
body: thallus
bottom: root like “holdfast”
leaf-ish “blade”
stem-ish “stipe”
swellings at tips: receptacles (produce gametes)

Answer 74

A

domain eukarya
protist
sometimes classified as kingdom plantae
some unicellular (chlamydomones), some form colonies (volvox)
cells surrounded by a thin wall of cellulose
photoautotroph

Answer 75

A

Chlamydomonas

green algae - eukarya - protist
rapid movement due to pair of (not visible) flagella
cell has a single cup-shaped chloroplast which surrounds the nucleus and cytoplasm

Answer 76

A

Volvox

form colonies
move via a cooperative movement of each individual’s flagella
green algae - protist - eukarya

Answer 77

A

protist - eukarya
constantly changing shape
unicellular
chemoheterotroph
move by streaming their cytoplasm into pseudopodia
pseudopodia are also used in endocytosis

Answer 78

A

protist - eukarya
photo is a paramecium
oval (not pointy tips)
you can’t really see much inside on the slide except for the nucleus
unicellular
chemoheterotrophs
feed by endocytosis through oral groove
swim by waving short cilia (not always visible)

Answer 79

A

protist - eukarya
oval but sort of pointy on one corner
chemoheterotroph or photoautotroph (have chloroplast)
motility via single flagellum (not visible)
you can see stuff inside on the slide

Answer 80

A

cell walls made of chitin
multicellular (most)
long filaments called hyphae
tangled mat of hyphae = mycelium
cytoplasm of adjacent cells in hyphae are connected by large pores that allow exchange of organelles
sometimes, no cell division in hyphae, it’s just one long cell with many nuclei
nuclei are usually haploid
chemoheterotrophic
live on dead organic matter
secrete enzymes to digest materials and absorb nutrients from their environment

Answer 81

A

zygomycetes
basidiomycota

Answer 82

A

fungi
produce zygosporangium during sexual reproduction
black bread mould
spores do not have flagella

Answer 83

A

kingdom fungi
regular mushroom I eat
produce a basidiocarp (the thing that sticks out of the ground)
underground = hyphae
basidiocarp = club shaped, produce spores that develop on surface of gills.
gills under the hat (pileus) of the basidiocarp
stem = stipe

Answer 84

A

kingdom fungi
yeast = unicellular, moist environment. reproduce mostly by budding (some sexually). cell wall made of chitin
lichen = two different organisms living together. not really a fungus, no real kingdom, actually. Mutualistic symbiosis of a photoautotroph (usually green or blue-green algae filaments) and a fungus.
Mycorrhizae = mutualistic symbiosis of fungus hyphae and vascular plant

Answer 85

A

Get their energy directly from light and make their own C from CO₂

Answer 86

A

multicellular
photoautotroph
eukaryotic
cell wall made of cellulose

Answer 87

A

Flowering, vascular, seeding plants
5 classes including monocot and dicot

Answer 88

A

1 cotyledon
root has pith in center
no cambium
smaller phloem in root than dicots
in roots, endodermis is neatly aligned around circumference of root
no cortex or cambium in stems
smaller vascular bundles spread out throughout the stem
Their leaves have parallel veins and are attached to the stem by a sheath (no petiole)
Flowers are arranged in multiples of 3

Answer 89

A

2 cotyledons per seed
roots: no pith or cambium between xylem and phloem
phloem takes up more space in the root
endodermis not neatly aligned in a circle
In stems, pitch and cortex present
vascular bundles in stems are larger than for monocots and are concentrated in centre
leaves have branching veins and attach to stem with a petiole
flowers are arranged in multiples of 4 or 5

Answer 90

A

plant embryo
food
protective case

Answer 91

A

radicle (root)
plumule (leaf)
cotyledon (leaflet modified to store food)
endosperm (food storage)
seed coat (protection)

Answer 92

A

Under the right conditions (temp and moisture), the seed will use the food of the cotyledons (and sometimes the endosperm too). The radicle grows roots, the plumule grows leaves to carry out photosynthesis for future growth.

Answer 93

A

meristem (embryonic)
dermal (surface)
ground (various)
vascular (transport)

Answer 94

A

embryonic tissue
cells are small and cuboidal
large nucleus and thin cell wall
found in apical and axillary bud meristems
thin layers in the cambium in dicot roots/stems and pericycle of monocot/dicot roots
function: growth and repair. new cells provided by meristem tissue

Answer 95

A

outer surface tissue
1 + layer of flattish cells
large nucleus, no chloroplasts
may have hair or waxy cuticle
some specialized guard cells form stomata (opening) that allow gas exchange
guard cells have chloroplasts
function: protect from injury and dehydration, exchanges or materials with environment

Answer 96

A

umbrella term for several kinds of tissue

types:

pith (in centre of stem/root)
cortex (outside vascular tissue of stem/root)
mesophyll (leaves)

long boxy cells, large central vacuole
some can divide after maturation
function: photosynthesis, mechanical support

Answer 97

A

transport system through roots, stems, leaves
two types: xylem and phloem
both phloem and xylem form tiny tubules, cannot divide
found in roots, stems and leaves

Answer 98

A

type of vascular tissue
long, large, thick wall
dead cells
long tube of cell wall material, cell ends are open
carry water and minerals from roots up to rest of plant

Answer 99

A

type of vascular tissue
long, smaller, thinner walls
cells are alive, though some have lost nucleus
sieve-tube members joined end to end with small holes between cells
companion cells that maintain the phloem (they have a nucleus)
transport sugar all around

Answer 100

A

roots
stem
leaves
flowers

Answer 101

A

anchor the plant in soil
absorb water and dissolved minerals
store food
centre has vascular cylinder surrounded by a thick layer of ground tissue (cortex), which stores material
growing tip = apical meristem (provides new cells)
root cap = protects apical meristem
above apical meristem = zone of cell division
above that = zone of elongation
above that = zone of maturation where cells specialize
root covered by a single layer of dermal cells = epidermis (may incl. root hairs)

Answer 102

A

dicot root

no pith
cambium between zylem and phloem
phloem takes up more space
endodermis less nicely aligned

Answer 103

A

support structure
produce and support leaves and flowers
conduct and store water, minerals and sugar
two types: herbaceous and woody

Answer 104

A

soft and green
diameter doesn’t grow much
often annuals
covered by epidermis
can be dicot or monocot

Answer 105

A

hard and brown
considerable diameter growth
perrenials
corky bark
dicot only

Answer 106

A

Dicot Stem

pitch and cortex
larger vascular bundles
vascular bundles concentrated at perimeter with pith in center

Answer 107

A

principle site of photosynthesis
can also be spines or thorns to conserve water or discourage herbivores
Parts:

blade (flat part)
petiole (stalk - not present in most monocots)

no meristem tissue
chloroplasts in guard cells and ground tissue

Answer 108

A

Dicot leaf

branching veins
petiole attaches leaf to stem

Answer 109

A

reproductive organ
parts arranged symmetrically in whorls on receptacle
receptacle: enlarged end of stem
sepals: outermost whorl (green or look like petals)
petals: modified leaves, colourful to attract pollinators
stamens: stalk + anther (2 pollen sacs) pollen is male gamete
carpel: center. holds stigma (sticky). Stalk = style (holds up stigma)
base of carpel swells to form ovary (ovules inside) ovule contains female gamete
carpels often fused together into a pistil, but maintain separate stigmas

Answer 110

A

monocot: arranged in multiples of 3
dicot: arranged in multiples of 4 or 5

Answer 111

A

once a female gamete in the ovule gets fertilized, ovule becomes a seed
ovary becomes the fruit around it
fruit aids in dispersion of seeds
fruit parts:

pericarp: modified ovary (includes exocarp (outer skin) and mesocarp (inner rind))
seeds
Sometimes, you can even see the carpels inside

Answer 112

A

epithelial tissue (surface)
connective tissue (structural)
muscle tissue (contractile)
nervous tissue (conducting)

Answer 113

A

simple (one row of cells)
stratified (more than 1 row of cells)
squamous (flat cells)
cuboidal (box-like cells)
columnar (long box cells)

In slides, epithelial tissue is seen at the edge of the sample.

Answer 114

A

in slides, et see it at the edge of the sample
covers or lines the body or some organs
sheet of 1+ layer of cells in a layer of extracellular matrix (basal lamina) which is usually not visible

Answer 115

A

bottom layer (germinal layer) is box-like. cells become flatter as we move to the surface
covered by flat dead cells (corneum) which wear off
germinal layer goes through cell cycle. New cells are pushed towards the top to replace corneum
protection from friction, blows, heat loss, water loss, etc…

Answer 116

A

in the slide, the little holes are the tubules and the simple cuboidal epithelium is what lines them
single layer of boxy (sort-of cubelike) cells
tightly joined, the membranes between the cells might be tough to see
form kidney tubules, smallest lung bronchioles, ducts of glands.
function: secretion of certain materials

Answer 117

A

single layer of brick-shaped cells
nuclei near the base
upper face might be covered by cilia
lining the digestive or respiratory tract
functions: secretion, absorption and dust filtration

Answer 118

A

includes several different kinds with very different functions
All have cells that are scattered in an extracellular matrix (web of fibres embedded in a liquid, jelly or solid material)
three types of fibres:

collagenous fibres (for strength and flexibility)
reticular fibres (for attachment)
elastic fibres (for elasticity)

Answer 119

A

extracellular matrix = liquid
loose web of all three types of fibres (collagenous, reticular, elastic)
scattered in this are irregular cells with large nuclei (fibroblasts)
found under the skin
provides support while remaining elastic

Answer 120

A

More dense than loose connective tissue
dominated by strong parallel collagenous fibres with fibroblasts squeezed between them
found in tendons (that connect muscles to bones) and ligaments (that connect bones to other bones)

Answer 121

A

connective tissue
matrix composed of collagenous fibres embedded in a solid but rubbery material
oval cells are chondrocytes
found at the end of bones (to reduce friction), joining ribs to sternum (for flexibility), in the nose, larynx, … to provide shape with flexibility

Answer 122

A

connective tissue
matrix is hard, mineralized, has collagen
made up of many osteons fused together
each osteon is composed of layers of matrix around a central canal (containing blood vessels and nerves) with cells (osteoblasts) between the layers
provides anchos and levers for voluntary muscles, protects vital organs, stores calcium

Answer 123

A

specialized form of loose connective tissue
adipose cells in matrix
each adipose cell contains a large droplet of fat
function: storage of food energy, insulation, padding

Answer 124

A

connective tissue
no fibres
liquid matrix called plasma

erythrocytes (red blood cells) - no nucleus, for transporting oxygen
leukocytes (white blood cells) - large, complexe nucleus. for protecting from infection
thrombocytes (platelets) tiny. irregular fragments, no nucleus. help clotting

Answer 125

A

capable of contraction
responsible for body movement
cells are long and thin
cells are called muscle fibres
three types: skeletal, smooth and cardiac

Answer 126

A

voluntary muscle
attached by tendons to bones
aka striated muscle tissue
transverse bands give muscle a striated appearance
each muscle fibre is very long with many nuclei and uniform in thickness with blunt ends
does NOT branch like cardiac muscle

Answer 127

A

involuntary muscle
not attached to bones
no transverse bands
each fibre is a single cell, tapering at the ends
found in the walls if intestines, blood vessels, air passages, trachea, etc…
function: change the diameter of some tubes and move materials through other tubes

Answer 128

A

contraction is involuntary
muscle fibres are short with a single nucleus
connected by intercalated discs into long branched chains of cells
in the heart, so responsible for pumping blood throughout the body
recognize this slide because of the muscle fibers forking at places

Answer 129

A

found in the nervous tissue
two types

neurons (transmit signals)
glia (help neurons function)

neurons have a cell body with nucleus, dendrites that receive signals and transmit them to the cell body and an axon that transmits signals from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands

Answer 130

A

nostrils (or mouth)
nasal cavity (air is moisturized/warmed/filtered)
pharynx
glottis
larynx (where vocal cords are): moisturize, warm, filter air again
trachea
bronchi
lungs
bronchioles
alveoli (sacs at the end of bronchioles): oxygen diffuses out of them into the blood. CO₂ diffuses into them from the blood
diaphragm is muscle that moves air in/out

Answer 131

A

mouth
oral cavity
teeth (physical digestion) + saliva (chemical digestion) + tongue (manipulate food)
pharynx (epiglottis prevents food from entering the larynx)
oesophagus
stomach (chemical digestion)
small intestine (digested food absorbed by the body)
liver and pancreas (secrete juices for chemical digestion in the small intestines)
large intestine (water and minerals absorbed)
rectum (storing faeces)
anus

Answer 132

A

Mammal heart has 4 chambers (2 atria and 2 ventricles)

Blood returns to the left atrium from the lungs through pulmonary veins
left atrium pumps blood into left ventricle
left ventricle pumps blood through aorta to most of the body
arteries carry blood away from the heart to capillaries
in capillaries, O₂ and CO₂ are exchanges
veins carry blood back to heart with the vena cava into the right atrium
right atrium pumps blood to the right ventricle
right ventricle pumps blood to lungs via the pulmonary artery
in the lungs, capillaries surround each alveolus

Answer 133

A

waste material is filtered out of the blood flowing through the kidneys
waste passes through ureters into urinary bladder
ejected through urethra

Answer 134

A

right atrium
lungs
heart
liver
urinary bladder
larynx
trachea
vena cava
rib cage
left atrium
diaphragm
stomach
pancreas
small intestine
large intestine
anus

Answer 135

A

larynx
trachea
right kidney
urethra
oesophagus
diaphragm
vena cava
left kidney
ureters
urinary bladder

Answer 136

A

porifera (porous - sponges)
cnidaria (sting like a knife - jellyfish)
echinodermata (spiny skin - starfish)
chordata (spinal cords - vertebrates)
platyhelminthes (plat - flatworm, tapeworms)
Mollusca (clams, octopi)
annelida (earthworms)
nematoda (roundworms)
arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustacians)

Answer 137

A

sponges
numerous pores with 1+ larger opening
body made up of 2 layers of cells with a gel
sessile, filter-feeders, marine
Symmetry: none (some radial)
Reproduction: asexual (budding) or sexual (no specialized organs), hermaphrodite. Fertilization internal
Digestive system: none, intracellular digestion

Answer 138

A

sessile cup-shaped, mouth facing up (hydra, anemone, coral) OR
free-swimming medusa, mouth down (jellyfish).
all have specialized STINGING CELLS
Symmetry: radial
Reproduction: asexual (budding) or sexual (hermaphroditic, fertilization external
Nervous system: nerve net, simple sensory cells, sometimes eyes
Digestive system: incomplete, gastrovascular cavity. intra AND extracellular digestion
exoskeleton in coral

Answer 139

A

starfish, brittle stars, sea cucumbers
carnivores (some filter feeders)
unique tube feet for locomotion, respiration, circulation, excretion
Symmetry: radial
Reproduction: sexual (separate sexes usually), fertilization external
Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring) with nerves and sense organs
Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
Circulatory system: open, 1 chambered heart
Respiratory system: gills
Body cavity: coelom
Endoskeleton with calcium

Answer 140

A

sea squirts, lancelets and vertebrates
four features in all chordates:

notochord
dorsal hollow nerve cord
pharyngeal pouches (embryonic gills)
muscular post-anal tail (sometimes lost in adults)

Symmetry: bilateral
Reproduction: sexual, separate sexes, external or internal fertilization
Nervous system: brain with dorsal hollow nerve cord, ganglia, sense organs
Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
Circulatory system: closed, heart with 2+ chambers
Respiratory system: gills or lungs
Excretory system: nephridia (ass hole)
Body cavity: coelom
Appendages: paired
endoskeleton

Answer 141

A

flatworms, flukes, tapeworms
cilia often used for locomotion
aquatic carnivores or parasites
Symmetry: bilateral
Reproduction: asexual (fission) or sexual, hermaphroditic, internal fertilization
Nervous system: net-like, simple brain and nerves, sense organs (or not)
Digestive system: incomplete (gastrovascular cavity with intra and extracellular digestion
Excretory system: protonephridia (osmoregulation)
Segmentation: only in tapeworms

Answer 142

A

snails, clams, squids, nautili
muscular foot (or modified to tentacles)
calcareous shell
Symmetry: bilateral or none
Reproduction: sexual, separate sexes (except for snails = hermaphrodites, internal fert) external fertilization for most
Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring) with nerves and ganglia, sense organs
Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
Circulatory system: open with 3 chambered heart (2 in snail/slug, extra heart in squid, octopus)
Respiratory system: gills (snail has lung)
Excretory system: metanephridia
Body cavity: coelom (small)

Answer 143

A

earthworms, leech, sandworms, sea mouse
segmented
each segment has hairs that help locomotion
most free-living, but some parasites
if cut in half, front can survive, rear dies
Symmetry: bilateral
Reproduction: sexual, hermaphroditic, internal
Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring), nerves, ganglia, sense organs
Digestive system: complete, extracellular digestion
Circulatory system: closed with several 1 chambered hearts
Respiratory system: none or gills
Excretory system: metanephridia
Body cavity: coelom
Segmentation: prominent
Appendages: some have paired appendages

Answer 144

A

roundworms, ascaris (parasite)
tough outer cuticle that molts
LASHING MANNER of LOCOMOTION because only longitudinal muscles
most free-living, some parasitic
Symmetry: bilateral
Reproduction: sexual, separate sexes, internal fertilization
Nervous system: simple brain (nerve ring), nerves, no sense organs
Digestive system: complete, extracellular
Excretory system: simple glands
Body cavity: pseudocoelom (cavity under skin)
Segmentation: NO

Answer 145

A

spiders, scorpions, crabs, millipedes, insects, lobsters, tick
largest phyla
chitinous exoskeleton (moulted)
distinct body regions (head, abdomen, thorax…)
some have complexe social organization
Symmetry: bilateral
Reproduction: sexual, sexes separate, internal fertilization
Nervous system: brain, nerves, sense organs
Digestive system: complete, extracellular
Circulatory system: open, 1-chambered heart
Respiratory system: trachea, lungs or gills
Excretory system: malpighian tubules or metanephridia
Body cavity: coelom, but small
Segmentation: yes
Appendages: paired, jointed legs, insects have 2 pairs of wings

Answer 146

A

platyhelminthes (tapeworm)
annelida (leech)
arthropoda (tick)
nematoda (ascaris)

Answer 147

A

eel
no jaws, circular sucking mouth
mostly parasites
Skin: slimy, no scales
Skeleton: notochord, simple cartilage skeleton with proto-vertebrae
Mouth: no jaw, toothed tongue, mouth with teeth
Circulation: 2 chambered heart, 1 blood circuit
Respiration: 7 pairs of gill slits
Fertilization: external, oviparous
Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, dorsal nostril, ears
Medial fins: 2 dorsal 1 caudal (tail)
Segmentation: yes
Poikilotherm

Answer 148

A

sharks, rays, ratfish, skates
skeleton of cartilage
separate, arched vertebrae to protect nerve chord
caudal (tail) fin is asymetrical
spiral valve intestine
cloaca (common opening for poop and sex)
Skin: slimy, scales
Skeleton: notochord, cartilage skeleton with vertebrae
Mouth: jam, teeth
Circulation: 2 chambered heart, 1 blood circuit
Respiration: 5 pairs of gill slits, 1 pair spiracles (breathing hole)
Fertilization: internal, oviparous (some oviviparous)
Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, 2 ventral nostrils, ears, electroreceptor pits
Paired pectoral and pelvic fins, single dorsal, ventral and caudal (tail) fins supported by horny rods
Poikilotherm

Answer 149

A

salmon, seahorse, swordfish, sturgeon
bony skeletons
exception: sturgeon has cartilage skeleton and retains notochord into adulthood)
may provide care to babies
Skin: slimy, scales under skin
Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
Mouth: jaw, teeth (none in seahorse or sturgeon)
Circulation: 2 chambered heart, 1 blood circuit
Respiration: 5 pairs of gill slits
Fertilization: external, oviparous
Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, 2 dorsal nostrils, ears, sometimes electroreceptor pits
Swim bladder to control buoyancy
Paired pectoral and pelvic fins, single dorsal, ventral, caudal fins supported by cartilage and or bone rods (rays)
Poikilotherm

Answer 150

A

similar to ray-finned fish
Cloaca present (common hole)
Skin: slimy, scales under epidermis
Skeleton: notochord, bones skeleton, vertebrae
Mouth: jaw, teeth
Circulation: 2.5 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
Respiration: 5 pairs of gill slits, simple lungs (2), 2 dorsal nostrils, air pushed into lungs from mouth
Fertilization: mostly external oviparous
Nervous system: brain with small cerebrum
Senses: lateral eyes, lateral lines, 2 dorsal nostrils, ears, sometimes electroreceptor pits
Paired pectoral and pelvic fins (long and very thin) on a fleshy base, dorsal, ventral and caudal fins are fused together
Poikilotherm

Answer 151

A

frogs, salamanders, caecilians
live on both land and water (moist habitats if land only)
Carry eggs until hatched (eggs must be kept wet)
Skin: slimy, smooth, no scales
Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adult
Mouth: jaw, small teeth on upper jaw (none in toads)
Circulation: 3 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
Respiration: simple lungs, 2 nostrils, gas exchange through skin and mouth also
Fertilization: external, oviparous, eggs without shell
Nervous system: brain, moderate cerebrum
Senses: dorsal eyes, ears, 2 nostrils
2 pairs of lateral limbs (none in caecilians), digits often webbed
Poikilotherm

Answer 152

A

mammary glands
extensive parental care
clocoa in platypus
Skin: covered by corneum, hair, rarely scales
Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults, tail varyable
Mouth: jaw, specialized teeth
Circulation: 4 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
Respiration: pair of lungs inflated by diaphragm, 2 nostrils
Fertilization: internal viviparous (oviparous for platypus)
Nervous system: brain, very large cerebrum
Senses: frontal/lateral eyes, ears, nostrils
2 pairs of limbs, 5 digits rarely webbed
Homeotherm

Answer 153

A

lay eggs on land
shell of bony plates covered by scales
Cloaca
Skin: dry, scales
Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
Mouth: jaw, no teeth, horny beak
Circulation: 3.5 chambered heart, 2.5 blood circuits
Respiration: pair of lungs, 2 nostrils, cloaca
Fertilization: internal, oviparous, egg with leathery shell
Nervous system: brain with moderate cerebrum
Senses: dorsal/lateral eyes, ears, 2 nostrils
2 pairs of lateral limbs, 4-5 digits with webbing
Poikilotherm

Answer 154

A

Cloaca
Skin: dry with scales
Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
Mouth: jaw, teeth
Circulation: 3.5 chambered heart, 2.5 blood circuits
Respiration: pair of lungs or just one, 2 nostrils
Fertilization: internal, oviparous (often ovoviviparous or viviparous). eggs with leathery shell
Nervous system: brain with moderate cerebrum
Senses: dorsal/lateral eyes, ears, nostrils
2 pairs of lateral limbs or none, 4-5 digits
Poikilotherm

Answer 155

A

crocodiles, alligators, gavials
aquatic, but air breathing
powerful laterally flattened tail
Lay eggs on land
parental care
cloaca
Skin: dry, scales
Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, no notochord in adults
Mouth: jaw, teeth, gizzard
Circulation: 4 chambered heart, 2.5 blood circuits
Respiration: pair of lungs, 2 nostrils
Fertilization: internal, oviparous, egg with leathery shell
Nervous system: brain, moderate cerebrum
Senses: dorsal eyes, ears, nostrils
2 pairs of lateral limbs, 4-5 digits, partial webbing on back feet
Poikilotherm

Answer 156

A

adaptations for flight
extremely complex behaviour
extensive parental care
social (sometimes)
closest relatives of dinosaurs
cloaca
Skin: corneum, feathers, scales
Skeleton: bone, vertebrae, long bones are hollow, no notochord in adults, reduced tail
Mouth: jaw, no teeth, beak, gizzard
Circulation: 4 chambered heart, 2 blood circuits
Respiration: 2 lungs, 2 nostrils
Fertilization: internal, oviparous, eggs with hard shell
no urinary bladder
Nervous system: brain, large cerebrum
Senses: lateral eyes, ears, nostrils
Forelimbs modified for flight (wings), hind limbs with 3-4 digits (sometimes webbed)
Homeotherm