Lab Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Functions of the Skull
A
- Protecting the brain and the organs of special senses (smell, taste, sight, hearing and equilibrium)
- forming openings by which air, food, and fluids enter the body
- Provide teeth and jaws for chewing
- Providing surfaces for the attachment of the muscles that move the head, jaw and eyes, as well as the muscles that produce facial expressions
2
Q
What is the hyoid? What is it’s function?
A
Small bone found in the neck, does not articulate with another bone. Ligaments bind it to the skull. It serves as a movable base for the tongue and an attachment site for muscles that move the larynx during swallowing. 10 muscles are attached to this bone.
3
Q
What is the vertebral column?
A
Found in the neck and composed of cervical vertebrae, ligaments and intervertebral discs.
4
Q
Each vertebrae articulates with ______ but the first articuates with _____
A
Adjacent vertebrae; the skull
5
Q
The _____ bind the vertebrae together.
A
ligaments and intervertebral discs
6
Q
What is a bone marking?
A
The openings, bumps, and depressions found on all bones.
7
Q
Do bone markings have functions?
A
YES. Ex. Opening allow for blood vessels and serves to enter and exit bones.
8
Q
How do we name bone markings?
A
Many bone markings include a directional term.
Ex. each cervical vertebrae has a SUPERIOR articular articular facet.
9
Q
What is mastication?
A
Chewing. It is partially voluntary and partially reflexive. We voluntary put food in our mouth and contract the muscles to close the jaws. The pattern and rhythm id reflexive but can be voluntary id desired.
10
Q
What is a reflex?
A
An automatic response to stimuli
11
Q
Name some parts of the axial skeleton
A
hyoid bone, cervical vertebrae, skull, etc.
12
Q
RW: angul
A
an angle
13
Q
RW: atla
A
A mythological Greek giant who held up the heavens
14
Q
RW: axi
A
an axle
15
Q
RW: bucc
A
the cheek
16
Q
RW: cleid
A
clavicle
17
Q
RW: crib
A
a sieve (strainer)
18
Q
RW: crist
A
a projection
19
Q
RW: dens
A
tooth-like
20
Q
RW: di
A
two
21
Q
RW: ethm
A
sieve-like
22
Q
RW: frons
A
the forehead
23
Q
RW: gast
A
belly
24
Q
RW: labi
A
a lip
25
RW: lacr
a tear
26
RW: lambd
shaped like the greek letter lambda
27
RW: leva
to raise
28
RW: magn
large
29
RW: masseter
a chewer
30
RW: mast
breast shaped
31
RW: metope
the forehead
32
RW: nas
of the nose
33
RW: occip
the bad of the head
34
RW: occul
eye
35
RW: omo
shoulder
36
RW: opt
the eye; vision
37
RW: obicularis
circular
38
RW: ori
mouth
39
RW: par
near
40
RW: parie
a wall
41
RW: rotund
round
42
RW: sell
a saddle
43
RW: sept
a wall
44
RW: spin
a spine
45
RW: stern
the breastbone
46
RW: style
long and pointed
47
RW: turcica
Turkish
48
RW: vomer
a plow
49
Where is the frontal bone located?
the forehead
50
Where is the occipital bone located?
the back of the head
51
Which vertebrae articulates with the skull?
the atlas
52
RW: cervi
neck
53
RW: ment
chin
54
RW: inter
between
55
Both cranial and facial bones surround the ____.
nasal cavity and orbits
56
Why aren't structures always visible on skulls as they are in figures?
As people age, sutures close (the fibrous CT binding the bones is replaced by bone). For most sutures, this does not begin until middle age and and is not completed until old age. However, some close early in life, around age 8.
57
What does Beauchene mean?
exploded.
58
Name all of the cranial bones
Frontal, pariental, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid
59
Name all of the facial bones
nasal, lacrimal, maxilla, zygomatic, palatine, vomer, interior nasal concha and mandible
60
Which cranial bone is also found in the facial skeleton?
frontal
61
Give the TWO facial bones that are single
mandible and vomer
62
Which is the one suture that is paired?
Squamous
63
What are paranasal sinuses?
These are sinuses connected to the nasal cavity. At birth, these sinuses are rudimentary or not present. They start to enlarge when permanent teeth begin to erupt and continue to erupt until after puberty. The final size varies between individuals.
64
What is the function of sinuses?
The function is unclear. They lighten the scull but the saving in weight is trivial. they add resonance to the voice.
65
How is a sinus named?
it is named for the bone in which it is found.
66
Why is a sinus not visible until you cut into the skull?
Because it is a space inside a bone.
67
What are sutures?
Fibrous joints that bind nearly all skull bones together. In most cases, a suture binds two bones.
68
What type of joint is a suture?
synarthrotic
69
BMF: External auditory meatus (external acoustic meatus)
Lateral aspect of skull: Passageway for sound waves
70
BMF: Mastoid process
Lateral aspect of skull: attachment of digastric and sternocleidomastoid muscles
71
BMF: condylar process
Lateral aspect of skull: articulates with the mandibular fossa
72
BMF: coronoid process
Lateral aspect of skull: attachment of temporalis muscles
73
BMF: mental foramen
Lateral aspect of skull: blood vessel nerve passageway
74
BMF: temporal fossa
Lateral aspect of skull: attachment of temporalis
75
BMF: zygomatic arch
Lateral aspect of skull: attachment of master muscle
76
BMF: styloid process
Lateral aspect of skull: ligaments and tendons attach here
77
BMF: orbit
Anterior: muscles attachment and protects eye
78
BMF: optic canal
Anterior: Cranial nerve passageway
79
BMF: superior orbital fissure
Anterior: cranial nerve passageway
80
BMF: nasal cavity
Anterior: air passageway
81
BMF: hard palate
Inferior: separates oral and nasal cavities
82
BMF: mandibular fossa
Inferior: articulates with the mandibular fossa
83
BMF: carotid canal
Inferior: blood vessel passageway
84
BMF: stylomastoid foramen
Inferior: cranial nerve passageway
85
BMF: foramen magnum
Inferior: spinal cord passageway
86
BMF: occipital condyle
Inferior: articulates with the atlas
87
BMF: external occipital protuberance
Inferior: attachment of trapezius muscles
88
BMF: superior nucal line
Inferior: attachment of trapezius muscle
89
BMF: critsta galli
Cranial cavity (anterior cranial fossa): attachment of dura matter
90
BMF: cribriform plate
Cranial cavity (anterior cranial fossa): cranial nerve passageway
91
BMF: stella turcica
Cranial cavity (middle cranial fossa): location of the pituitary gland
92
BMF: foramen rotundum
Cranial cavity (middle cranial fossa): cranial nerve passageway
93
BMF: foramen ovale
Cranial cavity (middle cranial fossa): cranial nerve passageway
94
BMF: internal acoustic meatus (internal auditory meatus)
Cranial cavity (posterior cranial fossa): cranial nerve passageway
95
BMF: jugular foramen
Cranial cavity (posterior cranial fossa): cranial nerve passageway
96
BMF: hypoglossal canal
Cranial cavity (posterior cranial fossa): cranial nerve passageway
97
Which 7 bones compose the walls of each orbit?
frontal, sphenoid, zygomatic, maxilla, ethmoid, lacrimal and palatine
98
Are ALL bone markings listen under lateral aspect paired?
YES
99
Which two bones compose the zygomatic arch?
zygomatic and temporal
100
Which 3 inferior aspect bone markings are single?
hard palate, foramen rotundum, and external occipital protuberance
101
The mandibular fossa is on the ____ bone.
temporal
102
A carotid canal is [medial or lateral] to the styloid process of the same side?
medial
103
The part of the hard palate formed by the palatine bones is [anterior or posterior] to the part formed by the maxillae?
posterior
104
A foramen fotundum is [ anterior or posterior] to the foramen ovale of the same side.
anterior
105
A jugular foramen is [medial or lateral] to the foramen magnum?
lateral
106
What is the metric structure of a fetal skeleton?
This is what binds the two frontal bones together. this suture begins to close at age two and is usually obliterated by age 8- producing a single frontal bone BUT in some individuals, this suture never closes.
107
What is the fontanel of the fetal skeleton? What is their purpose?
These are the fibrous membranes that make up the skull bones. Eventually, these fibrous membranes are replaced by bones. ALL FONTANELS ARE REPLACED BY BONE BY AGE 2! Their purpose is to allow the skull to be compressed at brith, making it easier to pass through the birthing canal.
108
BMF: vertebral body
Vertebral column: bears weight and articulates with adjacent vertebral bodies
109
BMF: dens
Vertebral column: articulates with the atlas
110
BMF: vertebral foramen
Vertebral column: passageway for spinal cord
111
BMF: vertebral arch
Vertebral column: protects spinal cord
112
BMF: spinous process
Vertebral column: muscle attachment
113
BMF: bifid spinous process
Vertebral column: muscle attachment
114
BMF: transverse process
Vertebral column: muscle attachment
115
BMF: transverse foramina
Vertebral column: passageways for vertebral arteries and veins
116
BMF: Superior articula facets
Vertebral column: Articulate with inferior articular facets of superior vertebrae (except those of C1 which articulate with occipital condyles)
117
BMF: inferior articular facets
Vertebral column: articulate with superior articular facets of inferior vertebrae
118
What is the vertebral canal formed by?
vertebral foramina
119
Are transverse foramina found on ALL cervical vertebrae and not any other types of vertebrae?
YES
120
What are Temporomandibular joints?
Commonly called jaw joints or TMJ. These undergo depression and elevation.
121
Explain depression, elevation, protraction, retraction, lateral excursion, and medial excursion.
Depression: open your mouth
Elevation: close your mouth
Protraction: mandible moves forward
Retraction: bringing the mandible back to normal position
Lateral excursion: moving your mandible to the right or left
Medial excursion: bringing the mandible back to its normal position
122
A: any suture
S: fibrous
F: synarthrosis
M: none
123
A: tooth with jaw bone
S: fibrous
F: synarthrosis
M: none
124
A: temporomandibular
S: synovial; modified hinge
F: diarthrosis; biaxial
M: depression, elevation
125
A: intervertebral bodies
S: cartilaginous
F: amphiarthrosis
M:
126
A: intervertebral facets
S: synovial; plane
F: diarthrosis; non-axial
M:
127
A: atlanto-occipital
S: synovial; condylar
F: diarthrosis; bi-axial
M:
128
A: median atlanto-axial
S: synovial; pivot
F: diarthrosis; uniaxial
129
Elevation and depression of the mandible are [angular/ gliding/ rotational] movements.
angular
130
Protraction, retraction, lateral and medial excursion of the mandible are [angular/ gliding/ rational] movements.
gliding
131
CS/F: Temporalis muscle
elevates and retracts the mandible
132
CS/F: Masseter muscle
elevates the mandible
133
CS/F: obicularis oculi muscle
closes the eyelid
134
CS/F: obicularis oris muscle
closes, purses, and protrudes the lips
135
CS/F: zygomaticus major muscle
smiling
136
CS/F: levator/ depressor anguli iris muscle
elevates/ depresses the corner of the mouth
137
CS/F: levator/ depressor labii superioris muscle
elevates/ depresses upper/ lower lip
138
CS/F: buccinator muscle
flattens the cheek against teeth (sucking or swallowing)
139
CS/F: sternocleidomastoid
Contraction of both flexes the neck, contraction of one rotates the head to the opposite side and laterally tilts he head to the same side.
140
CS/F: digastric muscle
depresses the mandible and elevates the hyoid
141
CS/F: Sternohyoid muscle
depresses the hyoid and larynx
142
CS/F: omohyoid muscle
depresses the hyoid
143
CS/F: sternothyroid muscle
depresses the larynx and hyoid
144
CS/F: thyrohyoid muscle
depresses the hyoid and raises the larynx
145
CS/F: trapezius muscle
extends the head
146
What is the nervous system?
composed primarily of nervous tissue and it controls many body activities.
147
What needs to happen for the nervous system to operate?
information must flow from one cell to another
148
What is a synapse?
A junction where information is traveled from one cell to another.
Ex. sensory neurons synapse with interneurons which synapse with motor neurons which synapse with effector cells
Ex. neuromuscular junction
149
What composes the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord
150
Where is the brain located?
The cranial cavity
151
What are the three autonomic areas of the brain?
forebrain, hindbrain and midbrain
152
Where is the spinal cord found?
The spinal cord is continuous with the hindbrain and is found in the vertebral canal.
153
How many segments does the vertebral canal have?
31 segments divided into 5 groups
154
Do both the brain and spinal cord have blood vessels?
YES
155
What is nervous tissue composed of?
neurons and neuroglia
156
Do neurons have dendrites, cell bodies and axons?
YES
157
What do you call a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the CNS?
A nucleus.
158
What do you call a collection of nerve fibers?
A tract.
159
There are around ___ neuroglia cells for every neuron in the CNS. Why?
10. Because neuroglia in the CNS are much smaller and more numerous than neurons.
160
How many types of neuroglia are in the CNS? What are their functions?
FOUR.
1. Support and hold neurons in their proper spacial relationships.
2. Phagocytize dead neurons and microorganisms.
3. Produce and move cerebral spinal fluid
4. Form myelin sheaths (an insulating covering for axons).
161
What is white matter? Gray matter?
Myelin is white, therefore, white matter is nervous tissue composed of myelinated nerve fibers. Unmyelinated nerve fibers and cell bodies are gray, so areas mostly composed of these structures are called gray matter.
162
What is the PNS consist of?
Neuroglia, ganglia and nerves.
163
How many types of neuroglia are in the PNS? What are their functions?
TWO
1. Support and hold neurons in place
2. Produce myelin sheaths.
164
What is a ganglion(s)?
A collection of neuron cell bodies in the PNS. Two types; dorsal root ganglia (contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons) and autonomic ganglia (contain the cell body of motor neurons).
165
What is a nerve?
A group of axons bound together by three connective tissue sheaths (Epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium).
166
Do nerves have blood and lymph vessels?
YES
167
How does a nerve vary in size?
A nerve can be large or small depending on the number of fibers within it. Some nerves have thousands of nerve fibers.
168
Are nerves sensory, motor or mixed?
They can be any of those but almost all nerves are mixed nerves. Only two nerves are purely sensory (olfactory and optic) and very few- if any- are purely motor.
169
Is the spinal CORD apart of the CNS or PNS?
CNS.
170
Nerve fibers are [axons/ dendrites/ neither of these].
axons
171
Are nerves CNS or PNS?
PNS
172
Nerves are divided into __ pairs of cranial nerve and __ pairs of spinal nerves based on where they attach to the CNS.
12 ; 31
173
Cranial nerves attach to the __ while spinal nerves attach to the ____.
brain ; spinal cord
174
Which cranial nerves are attached to the forebrain, the mid brain, and the hind brain?
The first two pairs attach to the forebrain, the third and forth pairs attach to the mid brain and the remaining cranial nerves attach to the hindbrain.
175
What is special about cranial nerve 10?
Vagas innervates structures located outside the head and neck region.
176
How can cranial nerves be described as both entering and exiting the skull?
Sensory signals travel towards the brain while motor signals travel away from the brain. So sensory neurons enter the skull while motor neurons leave the skull.
177
How are spinal nerves named and numbered?
By the spinal cord segment for which they attach.
178
How many pairs of spinal nerves attach to the cervical segments? Where do they emerge from?
8; The first pair of spinal nerves leaves the vertebral canal between the skull and the atlas. The others emerge via intervertebral foramina.
179
What is a nerve plexus? How many are there?
The joining of ventral rami to one another ; 5
1. Cervical Nerves (8)
2. Thoracic Nerves (12)
3. Lumbar Nerves (5)
4. Sacral Nerves (5)
5. Coccygeal Nerve (1)
180
Each spinal nerve branches into a ___ and a ____.
Dorsal ramis and ventral ramis. Each dorsal and ventral ramus separates into smaller and smaller nerves.
181
Cranial Nerve: Olfactory
1: Cribriform plate
182
Cranial Nerve: Optic
2: Optic canal
183
Cranial Nerve: Oculomotor
3: Superior Orbital Fissure
184
Cranial nerve: Trochlear
4: Superior Orbital Fissure
185
Cranial Nerve: Trigeminal Branches
5:
Ophthalmic: Superior Orbital Fissure
Maxilla: Foramen Rotundum
Mandibular: Foramen Ovale
186
Cranial Nerve: Abducens
6. Superior Orbita Fissure
187
Cranial Nerve: Facial
7. Internal acoustic meatus and stylomastoid foramen
188
Cranial Nerve: Vestibulocochlear
8. Internal Acoustic meatus
189
Cranial Nerve: Glossopharyngeal
9: Jugular Foramen
190
Cranial Nerve: Vagas
10: Jugular Foramen
191
Cranial Nerve: Accessory
11: Jugular Foramen
192
Cranial Nerve: Hypoglossal
12: Hypoglossal Canal
193
What is a sensory receptor?
They respond to changes in the external environment.
194
General Senses
Touch, pressure, stretch, vibration, temperature, pain and "muscle sense"(knowing the body's position.
195
Special Senses
Smell, taste, vision, hearing and equilibrium.
196
What are general sense receptors?
modified dendritic endings (sensory terminals) of sensory neurons.
197
Non encapsulated vs. Encapsulated Receptors
Non encapsulated: found nearly everywhere in the body and most end in small knob-like swellings. They respond primarily to temperature and painful stimuli but also to touch and movement of hair. Some even respond to itch.
Ex. free nerve endings and hair follicle receptors
Encapsulated: surrounded by connective tissue capsules. Almost all encapsulated receptors are mechanoreceptors and they respond to touch, vibration, pressure and stretch.
Ex. Tactile Corpuscles, lamellar corpuscles, muscle spindles and tendon organs.
198
Motor endings
The axons of motor neurons terminate here.
199
Axon terminals
The endings of motor neurons innervating skeletal muscles.
200
Varicosities
A series of swellings on the motor endings of smooth muscles and glands that make the distal ends of these axons look like strings of beads.
201
Menings
Connective tissue membranes that surround the brain nd spinal cord, protecting the soft delicate nervous tissue
Ex. dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater. Dura mater is the toughest out of the three.
202
Dura Mater
Leathery, touch and elastic protective layer that covers the brain. Has 2 layers that for the most part are fused to gather but certain portions are not fused.
203
What do you call the spaces the separated layers of dura mater?
Dural venus sinuses (blood leaving the brain drains into these sinuses and then into large veins in the neck.
204
What are arachnoid villi?
Knob-like projections of the arachnoid mater that protrude through the dura mater into some of the dural sinuses.
205
Which mater (dura, arachnoid, pia) clings tightly to the brain and spinal cord?
Pia mater
206
What is the subarachnoid space?
this contains cerebral spinal fluid and blood vessels and is found between the arachnoid and pia maters ( the web-like extensions of arachnoid mater span this space)
207
What is a hematoma? Where is a subdural hematoma located?
A mass of clotted blood; between the dura matter and arachnoid matter
208
What is a Ventricular System? What structures make up the ventricular system in the brain and spinal cord?
A series of spaces found in the CNS and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid ; the brain has two lateral ventricles, a third ventricle, a cerebral aqueduct, and a fourth ventricle. The spinal cord has a central canal.
209
What is cerebrospinal fluid? How often (if ever) is it replaced?
Protects CNS structures by acting as a liquid cushion. It also helps nourish the CNS cells. It is found both inside and outside of the CNS. Through the process of formation, circulation and removal, the entire volume of CSF is replaced after every 8 hours.
210
What happens if CSF is not removed and replaced?
If removal does not keep up with production, CSF will accumulate and exert pressure on the brain which could lead to brain damage.
211
RW: arbor
tree-like
212
RW: cereb
the brain
213
RW: chias
X-shaped
214
RW: cochl
a snail shell; spiral
215
RW: corp
a body
216
RW: cort
bark (outer layer)
217
RW: ellum
small
218
RW: encephal
brain
219
RW: falx
sickle-shaped
220
RW: gloss
the tongue
221
RW: infundibul
a funnel
222
RW: noci
harm
223
RW: olfact
smell
224
RW: pharyn
the throat
225
RW: pinea
pine cone
226
RW: pons
a bridge
227
RW: quadragem
quadruplets
228
RW: sept
a wall
229
RW: tentori
a tent
230
RW: trochle
a pulley
231
RW: vag
wandering
232
RW: verm
worm-like
233
RW: vit
life
234
CS/F: arachnoid mater
protects brain; absorbs cerebrospinal fluid
235
CS/F: pia mater
protects brain
236
CS/F: cerebrum
perception, cognition, memory, initiates voluntary movement
237
CS/F: frontal lobes
voluntary motor activity, speech, thinking
238
CS/F: parietal lobes
integrate sensory input from body's surface about cold, heat, touch, pressure and pain.
239
CS/F: temporal lobes
receive sensory input and sound
240
CS/F: occipital lobes
process visual sensory input
241
CS/F: corpus callosum
fibers connect cerebral hemispheres
242
CS/F: olfactory tracts
carry sensory input about smell
243
CS/F: olfactory bulbs
receive sensory input from CN1
244
CS/F: thalamus
integrates all types of sensory input and relays it to the cerebrum.
245
CS/F: hypothalamus
Integrates many homeostatic functions; secretes neurohormones
246
CS/F: pineal gland
Secretes melatonin
247
CS/F: infundibulum
connects the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland
248
CS/F: Optic nerves
Carry sensory input about vision
249
CS/F: Optic chiasm
some optic nerve fibers cross here.
250
CS/F: optic tracts
sensory input about vision
251
CS/F: cerebral aquaduct
a tunnel linking the third and fourth ventricles
252
CS/F: corporal peduncles
contain fibers that carry motor output from the cerebrum to other regions of CNS; attachment site of CN 3
253
CS/F: cerebellum
smooths and coordinates skeletal muscle movement
254
CS/F: pons
has respiratory centers and fiber tracts that connect the cerebrum to the cerebellum and to the spinal cord; attachment site of CN 5, 6 and 7.
255
CS/F: Medulla oblongata
controls respiration and heart rate, fiber tracts carry motor output from the midbrain to the spinal cord; CN 3 attaches to pons medulla border; CN 9, 10, 11, and 12 attach to the medulla oblongata
256
CS/F: spinal cord dura mater
protects the spinal cord
257
CS/F: arachnoid matter spinal cord
protects the spinal cord and absorbs cerebral spinal fluid
258
CS/F: spinal cord pia mater
protects the spinal cord
259
CS/F: dorsal root
fibers carry sensory input
260
CS/F: dorsal root ganglia
location of cell bodies of sensory neurons
261
CS/F: Ventral root
fibers carry motor output
262
CS/F: cervical spinal nerves
convey sensory input and motor output
263
CS/F: cervical enlargement
attachment site of nerves innervating the upper limbs
264
What is a reflex? What are the 2 types?
A response to a stimulus that occur automatically; without conscious effort.
1. simple (basic) reflex: built-in, unlearned responses
2. acquired (conditioned) reflexes: a result of practicing and learning
265
What is a reflex arc?
A pathway of a reflex which typically has five components:
1. sensory receptor that sects a stimulus
2. a sensory/ afferent pathway
3. Integration center
4. motor/ efferent pathway
5. an effector
266
If the same stimulus is repeated, will the response be similar?
No. the response can be modified by a variety of factors such as experience, conscious thought, additional sensory input and condition of the effector.
267
What are the two classifications for reflexes (effector)?
Visceral and somatic, depending on the effector involved.
Visceral: smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Somatic: skeletal muscles
268
What are two classifications of reflexes (location of integration center)?
Cranial: integration center in the brain
Ex. pupillary reflex
Spinal: integration center in the spinal cord
Ex. Patella reflex
269
A ___ reflex can by modified by input from the brain.
spinal
270
What is the importance of muscle spindles?
They are receptors of stretch reflexes
You need this for maintaining upright posture.
Ex. the patellar reflex helps keep your knees from buckling when you're standing. if your knee begins to buckle (flex) while you are standing, the quadriceps femurs muscle is stretched, stimulating muscle spindles as they send information about the stretch to the CNS. As a result, motor output is sent, causing contraction of the quadriceps muscle and thus, extension of the knee which keeps you standing.
271
Do reflexes play a major role in homeostasis?
Yes!
272
Give an example of a reflex involving a negative feedback loop!
Most of the negative feedback loops that control variables of the extracellular fluid are reflexes.
273
Why is testing spinal reflexes in medicine and athletics important?
It is used to access function or loss of function at various levels of the spinal cord. For example, if the patellar reflex is absent or abnormal, this may indicate damage to the spinal cord in the second, third or fourth lumbar segments since these are responsible for reflex.
274
What were the average maximum degrees of rotation for the patellar reflex from highest degree to lowest?
Stronger- modified, normal- weakest
275
The latent period of the ____ response is shorter, why?
reflexive; because its a simple reflex arc and it doesn't need to go all the way to the brain
276
A normal patellar reflex's maximum degree of rotation is larger than that of a patellar reflex elicited by a weaker stimulus. T/F?
TRUE
277
A normal patellar reflex's maximum degree of rotation is smaller than that of a patellar reflex elicited by a stronger stimulus. T/F?
TRUE
278
A normal patellar reflex's maximum degree of rotation is larger than that of a patellar reflex elicited when the subject's upper limb muscle were contracted. T/F?
FALSE
279
What are muscle spindles composed of?
Modified skeletal muscle cells
280
What is descending inhibition?
Continual inhibiting signals sent from the brain to motor neurons in the spinal cord to DAMPEN a reflex.
281
What effect does descending inhibition have on reflexes?
If you occupy the brain with another stimulus, it will decrease descending inhibition, causing and increased degree of rotation because the brain is no longer being told to damped that stimulus because it has become distracted.
282
Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) are usually referred to as the ____ senses. Because...
chemical; they detect chemicals in the external environment.
283
What are olfactory cells? What do they respond to? Where are they found?
Olfactory cells are receptors that respond to chemicals in the air; they are bipolar neurons and are located along supporting cells in olfactory epithelium (an epithelium lining the roof of the nasal cavity).
284
What is a taste bud? Where are they located?
They are the sense organ for taste. they are located in the papillae of the tongue and contain gustatory cells and basal epithelial cells.
285
What are gustatory cells?
Made of modified epithelium and they respond to chemicals in food or drink.
286
Where do signal from gustatory cells travel?
along sensory neuron in cranial nerves 7, 9 and 10
287
What can stimulate gustatory cells?
Molecules in solution- whether injected fluids or dissolved in saliva.
288
What tide are gustatory cells made out of?
Modified epithelial cells
289
What is Umami?
A subtle taste responsible for the beef taste and the characteristic of the tang of aging cheese.
290
Can people taste long chain fatty acids?
YES
291
How you we acquire the salt, sour, sweet, umami or bitter taste?
salt: produced by Na+ and K+ ions
sour: acids (hydrogen ions)
Sweet and bitter tastes are elicited by many chemicals (not just one) most of which are organic.
Sugar: sugars, alcohols and some amino acids elicit the sweet taste
Bitter: Alkaloids (such as caffeine) and long-chain fatty acids and substances that contain nitrogen are some substances that taste bitter
Umami: the amino acids aspirate and glutamate elicit umami
292
An acidic taste is sometimes an indication of ____ while the bitter food is an indication of____.
rotting; toxins
293
What are the sensory receptors of vision? Where are they located?
Rods and a cons located in the retina
294
Distinguish between Rods and Cones
```
Rods= black and white
Cones= color
```
295
Sensory input about vision reaches the brain via ______
CN2
296
What is the significance of the focal point of the eye?
Light needs to travel through the focal point but the rays of light must intersect at this focal point in order for vision to be clear. Light need to be refracted to this point in order to see sharp and clear images.
297
What two senses are located in the ear?
Audition (hearing) and equilibrium.
298
Do all three regions of the ear (external, middle, internal) have structures involved in hearing? Which region has structures involved in equilibrium as well?
YES; internal ear
299
Describe the external ear..
A flap of skin on either side of the head flooded by a canal.
300
What is the tympanic membrane?
Also known as the ear drum. Lies between the external ear and the middle ear.
301
What bones are found in the middle ear?
Ossicles- 3 small bones
302
What are the parts of the internal ear?
Bony labyrinth and membraneous labyrinth.
303
What is the bony labyrinth? Membraneous labyrinth?
Bony labyrinth is a maze of tunnels in the temporal bone, a space within the temporal bone.
Membraneous labyrinth is a continuous series of membraneous sacs and ducts fount wishing the bony labyrinth.
304
Where is perilymph found in the ear? Endolymph?
Inner ear: Perilymph surrounds the membraneous labyrinth and endolymph fills it.
305
How is the bony labyrinth divided? Describe this.
Cochlea, vistibule and semicircular canals.
The cochlear duct is part of the membraneous labyrinth found in the cochlea. The vestibule houses two portions of the membraneous labyrinth ( utricle and saccule) and the semicircular ducts are the parts of the membraneous labyrinth found in the semicircular canals.
306
What are the two parts of the cochlea?
scala vestiboli and scala tympani
307
What are the receptors for hearing and equilibrium? How to they work?
modified epithelial cells called hair cells. The hairs for hearing are found in the cochlear duct, respond to sound waves (vibrations of air caused by sounds).
308
Describe the process of being able to hear
Sound waves must travel through the external ear to the tympanic membrane (ear drum), causing it to vibrate. These vibrations cause the auditory ossicles to move which causes movement of fluids in the internal ear that stimulate the hair cells of hearing.
309
What is the importance of hair cells for equilibrium? Where are they found?
Found in the utricle, saccule and semicircular ducts, respond to changes in the position of movement of the head.
310
What is sensory adaptation?
When a sensory receptor is repeatedly exposed to the same stimulus, it will become less sensitive to that stimulus. This means fewer or no signals about the stimuli are being sent to the CNS. The decreased sensitivity is called sensory adaptation.
311
EYE S/F: eyebrow`
each shades an eye
312
EYE S/F: upper and lower eyelids
Protects the eye from injury, sunlight and drying
313
EYE S/F: eyelashes
shields they eye
314
EYE S/F: conjunctiva
produces mucous that prevents the eye from drying
315
EYE S/F: extrinsic eye muscles
moves the eyes, helps maintain the shapes of the eyes and holds the eyes in the orbits.
316
EYE S/F: lacrimal glands
produces lacrimal secretions
317
EYE S/F: lacrimal sac
passageway for tears
318
EYE S/F: nasolacrimal duct
passageway for tears
319
Explain the process of producing tears
The lacrimal glands continuously produce and secrete lacrimal secretions called tears into the space between the eye and the eyelid. Blinking spreads tears over the eyeball. At the medial corner of the eye, tears drain into tubes that lead into the lacrimal sac. From there, tears drain into the nasolacrimal duct and then into the nasal cavity.
320
EYE S/F: sclera
protects internal structures, maintains shape of eyeball, provides a sturdy site for attachment of entropic eye muscles.
