L9: Social Psychology

Question 1

why do we succeed as a species

Answer 1

our ability to cooperate along with our intelligence

however, our ability to cooperate comes with some ‘strings attached.’

Question 2

define social psychology

Answer 2

The branch of psychology that studies how people influence others’ behavior, beliefs and attitudes

Question 3

what are two misunderstandings in social psychology

Answer 3

• Most people view being influenced by others as a sign of weakness (they shouldn’t)
• Most people believe that they are immune, or less vulnerable, to social pressures than others (they’re wrong)
• though there are some downsides, there are also major strengths
• Our connectedness can help us acquire information/skills,
  achieve group cohesion + finish tasks

Question 4

what are two important criterias in social networks

Answer 4

• Humans have a history of working in small groups (e.g.
  tribes) (e.g. 150 members, according to Dunbar)
• Importantly, quantity of relationships is not all that matters – quality matters too
• While our ‘total social network’ can be large, the
  number of close relationships within that network is
  more modest
  –> There may be a limit to the network size we can manage
• Our network may change in certain circumstances

Question 5

what is the socioemotional selectivity theory?

Answer 5

Older adults have fewer relationships which are based
on different motives. Relationships in older adults are
based more on emotion rather than information.

Question 6

what is the need to belong theory

Answer 6

• theory is based on the idea that humans have to be in social groups or they will show unhealthy behaviours
• Social networks are a predictor of well-being and a key stress management strategy
• Experimental pilot studies of isolation (most are usually correlational)
  –> In one study, only 1 of 5 subjects lasted longer than 3 days
  –> Subjects given the belief they would end up alone showed unhealthy behaviors, procrastination and impaired cognition
• Major concerns about solitary confinement in prison
  and during COVID lockdowns (effects differ by age)

Question 7

what is the difference between loneliness and isolation

Answer 7

• Loneliness refers to a feeling and is inherently negative
• Isolation refers to lack of contact and is not necessarily bad

–> The two are both related to health outcomes (mental,
physical), though in slightly different ways

Question 8

is loneliness increasing through times? is loneliness easily treatable?

Answer 8

• Reports of loneliness are increasing
  –> Before COVID: 1/3, with 1/12 cases being severe
  –> Described as an “epidemic”
• Loneliness is not easily treatable (either by forced
  interaction, support networks or social skills training)

Question 9

what does it mean being in a large group of people

Answer 9

• being part of a group is good for your health
• being part of a large group can change your behaviour in many ways.
• In large groups, ideas can spread quickly from one individual to the next

Question 10

what is social contagion vs. mass hysteria

Answer 10

• When a belief rapidly spreads throughout a group, almost like a flu
• Usually bad conotaion, but the impact of a contagion depends on the belief transmitted
• Irrational behaviors with harmdul consequences can accompany social contagion
• if social contagion is seen and the behaviors are irrational and harmful, the term mass hysteria may be used

Question 11

what are some examples of social contagion and what disorder may be associated? (4)

Answer 11

• Flying saucers in 1947, when a pilot spotted mysterious objects flying over the ocean
  –> No previous reports before this time
• UFO sightings corresponded with space shuttle launches (e.g. if a shuttle is launched in January, more UFO sightings in January)
• Urban legends
• yawning
• Argued certain disorders, including
  dissociative identity disorder, may count too

Question 12

what is dissociative identity disorder?

what gender is it more common in?

Answer 12

• Affected person claims to have at least two distinct identities
• These identities may alternatively display in the individual
• The individual often reports memory impairment of what happened in each prior state
• ~9 times more common in women
  (reasons unknown)

Question 13

how is DID controversial? what do some experts argue when it comes to the rise of the disorder?

Answer 13

• Its diagnosis and existence are the subject of intense
  disagreement among scientists and clinicians
• Some experts argue that the rise of the disorder is
  linked to cultural factors or improper interventions

Question 14

what are three important concepts for today? elaborate

Answer 14

• Integration: Individualism versus Collectivism (L01)
• Obedience: Listening to a figure of authority (e.g. a persuasive politician or a strong sergeant)
  –> Generally explicit
• Conformity: Adopting the predominant belief or behavior of a group due to pressure from that group
  –> Generally implicit
• Obedience and conformity are not, by themselves, bad
  –> Issues arise with blindly following without asking questions

Question 15

what is individualism vs collectivism

Answer 15

• This index reflects the degree to which people in a
  society are integrated into groups
• High index of individualism = individualistic society
• Low index of individualism = collectivist society

Question 16

how does individualism and collectivism effect societies and behaviours?

Answer 16

• Western societies tend towards individualism whereas
  Eastern societies tend towards collectivism
• Individualism and collectivism may influence many
  behaviors (family attitudes, facial expressions,
  prosocial behaviors + even creativity)
• Again, we must avoid stereotypes and focus on what is scientifically proven
• Findings are often controversial

Question 17

what was the backstory/context of Stanley Milgram’s experiment

Answer 17

• Stanley Milgram, a student of Asch, was the child of
  Jewish parents and grew up through World War 2
• He was preoccupied with the atrocities of the
  Holocaust and wondered how people could commit
  such horrific acts
• Prevailing view at the time was that such acts were the
  result of “twisted minds” (in other words, evil people)
• However, the real explanation may be complex –
  situational factors might also have played a role

Question 18

how was milgrams experiment set up

Answer 18

• Participant acts a teacher (T) whom asks the learner (L) several questions
• (T) is told by the experimenter (E) to give (L) a shock for wrong answers
• (T) believes they are shocking (L)
• (L) is an actor who pretends to be shocked and protests to the shocks!

In spite of protests by (L), (T) will give shocks!

Question 19

what are the results/variations of milgrams study?

• proximity
• when did they stop complying?
• role of a confederate scientist?
• cultural differences
• gender differences
• what trait is the compliance related and not related to
• what is the failure to comply related to

Answer 19

• Proximity and contact with learner affected the
  participants’ willingness to administer shocks
• Some participants stopped complying as intensity
  increased (15 to 450 V), but the majority (66%) stayed
• When a confederate scientist was present and
  disagreed with the experimenter, compliance was 0%
  –> Value of dissenting voices
• No major cultural differences (everyone, everywhere
  may be capable of this response)
• No major gender differences
• Compliance is not related to sadistic tendencies, but is
  related to other traits (obedience and authoritarianism)
  –> People are not administering shocks because it is ‘fun”
• Failure to comply is related to moral development,
  though this relationship is not especially strong

Question 20

what are the three major conclusions of Milgrams study

unrational actions, obedience, replications

Answer 20

• unrational actions: Participants engaged in a behavior that they would otherwise perceive as unacceptable
• obedience: Though subjects expressed doubts, many continued applying shocks with prodding by the experimenter
• replications: Partial replications and modern-day extensions have produced similar results

Question 21

How was Aschs study on conformity set up? what is the summarizing result? what factor definitely affected the compliance?

Answer 21

• Subjects participated in a study w/several confederates
• Subject had to declare which of 3 lines was longer
• Before the subject made their judgement, they heard
  several confederates make an incorrect judgment
• Subjects readily conformed to the wrong opinion
  –> Rate of conformity increased w/group size to a point

Question 22

stats about conformity

• do we all show conformity?
• self esteem
• cultural differences
• gender differences

Answer 22

• We all show some capacity to conform; it’s a question
  of how much and how often we do
• Low self-esteem predicts high conformity
• Cultural differences may exist; conformity may be
  greater in collectivist cultures than in individualistic
  cultures
• Gender differences in conformity were initially reported
  but are now disputed

Question 23

what is deindividuation? how do masks and mirrors effect children with the test of taking ‘forbidden candy’? what are three major examples?

Answer 23

• Tendency to engage in behavior atypical for us (but
  consistent w/situational norms) – loose your identity
• Key factors are a feeling of anonymity and lack of
  accountability
• Behavior when masked is a great example
  –> Children wearing masks more likely to take ‘forbidden candy’
  –> Presence of a mirror may reduce candy taken
• Major examples are online behavior, crowd behavior and the Stanford Prison Study

Question 24

How we see deindividuation IRL: Online behaviour

cyberbullying

Answer 24

• Sometimes its cute + funny, like hijacking online polls
  and voting for ridiculous options
• Sometimes its cruel + terrifying, as in cyber-bullying
  –> Males more frequently perpetrators
  –> Associated w/psychological + academic problems in victims
  –> Common; much wider age spectrum than most think

Question 25

How is some online behaviour not due to deindividuation?

Answer 25

• Importantly, not all bad behavior online is due to
  deindividuation
• Surprisingly, there are many recent examples wherein
  people used their real identities and articulated their
  real beliefs
  –> Typical behavior, no anonymity but possibility of
  accountability
• In such cases, the motivating factor is likely a desire to
  enforce certain ideals: cultural, political and religious
  values

Question 26

How we see deindividuation IRL: In crowds

Answer 26

• People routinely gather in large groups
• You’re likely especially familiar with crowds if you are a
  commuter or a socialite in a big city
• One of the most striking example of this is protests
  –> Many throughout human history, some of which include 10000+ people in one place
• Not all crowds are violent. In fact, most crowds and protests are peaceful

Question 27

How we see deindividuation IRL: The stanford prison study

what was the set up?

Answer 27

• Observational, not experimental
• 24 participants were randomly assigned to roles of ‘prisoner’ and ‘guard’ whereas the head of the study
  was assigned the role of ‘superintendent’
• People reportedly became consumed in their roles,
  losing their own identity and behaving atypically
• This study is one of the most popular studies in Psychology, but is also one of the most controversial
  and criticized

Question 28

explain the results of the standord prison study
main result, percent of guards that were aggressive/sadistic, how long the study actually lasted

Answer 28

• Though initially most participants believed that they were incapable of cruelty, cruel behaviors did emerge
• Some guards (~33%) became aggressive, and were said to exhibit ‘sadistic-like’ tendencies
  –> Forced prisoners to perform humiliating lineups, do pushups, sing, strip naked and clean toilets with their bare hands (partial list only)
• The study – which was supposed to last two weeks –was prematurely terminated after six days

Question 29

what are some criticisms to zimbardos study (6)

Answer 29

• Small sample size (n)
• Selection bias (whoever responded to the ad)
• Demand characteristics + observer effect
• Emphasis on qualitative, anecdotal reports that are
  difficult to verify and analyze quantitatively
• Experimenter (Zimbardo) was a participant (warden)
• Numerous ethical issues (has NOT been replicated)

Question 30

what is “groupthink”

Answer 30

• Emphasis on unanimity of opinion at the expense of
  critical thinking
• Common in meetings

Question 31

what is janis’ groupthink theory

what are some symptoms with an example?

Answer 31

Janis saw groupthink as: “a mode of thinking people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group”

• often used “we” instead of “I”
• perceived invulnerability “We cannot fail!”
• Perceived unanimity
  “Obviously, we all agree!”
• Perceived morality
  “We’re on the right side of history here.”
• Conformity pressures “Don’t be the person who rocks the boat.”
• Outgroup stereotyping “They’re all idiots over there.”
• Self-censorship
  “I don’t want to be the one to tell the boss that their idea is dumb. Maybe if I just let it go, they’ll forget about it.”
• Mindguards: people who stifle disagreement and crush dissent
  “Do you always have to disagree with everybody? Is being a contrarian fun or something?”

Question 32

commentary on janis’ groupthink theory

pro (1) and cons (3)

Answer 32

• Influential model; some have argued groupthink has
  played a role in many major policy and corporate
  decisions throughout history
• However, theory was based on anecdotal reports;
  experimental support is surprisingly scant
• Treatment options unclear
  –> Janis proposed a ‘devil’s advocate’

Question 33

what is social loafing? how is it related to bystanderism? what are three examples? do cultural differences exist?

Answer 33

• Tendency to put in less effort/do less work in groups
• Believed to be a variant of/related to the bystander
  effect (e.g. diffusion of responsibility)
• Many examples: Cheerleaders are less loud in a
  group, people pull less hard on rope in a group, people
  generate fewer ideas/less creative ideas in a group
• Cultural differences may exist; social loafing may be
  less evident in collectivist societies
  –> Group members may feel more responsible for outcomes

Question 34

What is the bystander effect?

Answer 34

• Reduced likelihood to assist others when in groups
• Many explanations:
  –> Pluralistic ignorance (“maybe it’s just me, maybe it’s not really a problem” tendency to take our behavioral cues from other bystanders facing the same situation. If they do not freak out, neither do we.)
  –> Diffusion of responsibility (“someone else will do it”)
  –> Cost of intervention, which can be physical or psychological (e.g. feelings of judgment/ vulnerability)
• Bystander effects are among the strongest and most replicable effects in all of Psychology – not just Social Psychology

Question 35

what are cults and 4 consistent features?

Answer 35

• Groups that exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion
  to a single cause
  –> Heaven’s Gate is a famous example
• Difficult to study due to their secretive nature, but some
  insights have been gained over the years
• Several consistent features:
  –> persuasive leader who inspires loyalty
  –> members disconnected from the outside world
  –> questions and dissent discouraged
  –> training practices that gradually indoctrinate members

Question 36

what are some misconceptions of cults (4)

Answer 36

• Cults are easy to identify and define
  –> Many groups seem to meet criteria, including AA
• Most cults are dangerous to others
  –> Most are peaceful to others (even if harmful to members), we tend to hear about only the most extreme ones
• Most people in cults are mentally ill (FAE)
  –> 33% (higher than normal), but the majority are not mentally ill
  –> Interestingly, cult leaders are often mentally ill
• Brainwashing is required (controversial)

Question 37

what is prosocial behaviour? if you act procsocially what do you most likely possess?

Answer 37

• Voluntary behavior for the benefit of others (e.g.
  friends, family, strangers or enemies)
• For today, assume altruistic = prosocial
• Prosocial behaviors are associated w/higher
  psychological + physical well-being in the helper
  –> It ‘feels good to be good’
• Many examples in everyday life
  –> Buying a friend lunch, donating, care-taking a sick loved one

Question 38

is punishment prosocial behaviour? what type of punishment is the best for prosocial behaviour? how is this controversial?

Answer 38

• Just punishments can also be regarded as prosocial
  –> May discourage bad behavior, improving group’s well-being
  –> May ‘educate’ the transgressor, giving them the opportunity to improve
  –> Costly punishments (where the punisher pays a cost to
  deliver punishment) are perceived as more legitimate
• Controversial idea
  –> Some have argued that the main factor affecting the decision to punish is the perception of risk to the self
  –> You are more likely to punish people you think will hurt you and/or your friends, but not others

Question 39

what are two examples of “just punishment”

Answer 39

Sharing toys
* Time out for misbehavior
* ‘Forced sharing’

Board games
* Player excluded from deals
* Player targeted by offensive moves

Sharing in ‘real economies’

Question 40

what affects our prosocial behaviour (7)

Answer 40

• Our mood (more common in good moods)
• Our schedule (more common when we’re not rushed)
• Our background (e.g. doctor, nurse…)
• High trait extroversion (L07) and trait empathy
• Characteristics of the person in need (matching)
• egotistic reasons (relieving our own distress,
  experiencing the joy of others we’ve helped, being
  perceived as a “better person”)
• Potential for escape (likely to help if we can’t leave)
• we’ve been educated on bystander effects

Question 41

what is aggression? how is it different in the real world and in studies? are real world studies experimental or correlative?

Answer 41

• Behavior intended to harm others, either verbally or physically
• The aggression that psychologists study using experimental designs (i.e. via a test) is different than the aggression in the “real world” (e.g. assault)
• For ethical reasons, most studies of real-world
  aggression are correlative and not experimental
• We are all capable of aggression, but the degree and severity is affected by many factors

Question 42

when is aggression more likely? (6)

gender?
stimulus?
mood?
psychological arousal?
media?
alcohol/temp?

Answer 42

• Male, especially for direct aggression (w/confrontation)
• Provocation by the individual (specific)
• Overall frustration (non-specific, lashing out at anyone)
• Physiological arousal (w/provocation + frustration)
• Reinforced by media (e.g. television, video games) and cues (e.g. guns, bats)
• Alcohol and temperature

Question 43

how is aggression and temperature correlated

Answer 43

Relationship holds in many countries and for many types
of aggression, including severe (assaults) and mild acts (beanballs in baseball)

Question 44

what are heuristics

Answer 44

• During our lifetime, we are faced with many problems
  and must make many important decisions quickly
• In this regard, heuristics are useful
• A heuristic is an approach to decision-making,
  problem-solving or discovery
• Heuristics can be executed quickly and don’t require a
  lot of information – but they aren’t always accurate

examples:
- rules of thumbs
- best practices
- intuitive judgement
- common sense

Question 45

what are representativeness heuristics

Answer 45

• Our tendency to organize information based on the
  similarity of that information to already established categories
• We all use this heuristic, to an extent
• To an extent, this heuristic can be both efficient and useful
• For example, consider basic sorting activities

Question 46

pro and two cons of representativeness heuristics

Answer 46

• Useful for making judgments in certain situations
• However, application of this heuristic to people can be
  inaccurate and harmful
• Linked to stereotypes that may not be connected to data
  –> Beliefs – positive or negative – about group characteristics
  that are extended to all members of a group

Question 47

what can stereotyping lead to? are we all suspectible to stereotyping? can experience regulate our thoughts? how can we change our stereotypng behaviour?

Answer 47

• Can lead to prejudicial and discriminatory behavior
• As we all have some tendency to use the
  representativeness heuristic, we all have some risk for
  stereotyping (it’s not guaranteed, but it’s possible)
• Importantly, we also have the potential to regulate our thoughts and actions with experience
• If we’re made aware of a stereotype, we can change our behavior. However, we’re not always aware of the stereotypes we have!

Question 48

what is implicit discrimination? where do we see it specifically? how is it driven? what two things does it effect? what is the test to test implicit discrimination? what does the test always measure?

Answer 48

• Unconscious process - “a negative attitude, of which one is not consciously aware, against a specific social group”
• A construct
• Potential hidden barrier against certain groups
• Suggested to occur everywhere – including in hiring + admissions
• Driven by associations of which the individual is
  unaware (implicit associations)
• Effects unconscious processing and drive decision-making
• One technique for addressing implicit associations is
  the implicit associations test (IAT)
  –> Several variations of the test; critical to all is the
  measurement of reaction time (in seconds)

Question 49

how does the implicit associations test work (IAT)

Answer 49

• Subjects are shown a word or image and categorize it
  into one of two groups by hitting a key (“E” or “I”)
• The reaction time taken for the keystroke is logged
• Differences in response time may reflect learned
  associations and potential biases

Question 50

what two criticisms of the IAT (implicit association/discrimination test)

are weak effects useful?
how should we use the results of this test?

Answer 50

• Test-retest reliability concerns (your performance can change if you do the test more than once)
• Correlation to discriminatory behavior unclear
  –> What do we call this issue?
• However, it has been argued that even weak effects in the individual become important on the societal level
• IAT could be useful if included in a combination of other tests

Question 51

what are group biases

• when do they exist
• can biases emerge based on meaningless criterial?
• can they be counteracted

Answer 51

• May exist even if the groups lack 1) a long/significant
  history and 2) meaningful differences in features
• Biases emerge even if the groups involved are rapidly assembled based on meaningless criteria
  –> Dot counting (as in Tajfel’s minimal group paradigm)
  –> Eye color (as in Elliot’s original classroom study)*
• Can be counteracted partially
  –> Forced cooperation (as in the Robber’s cave study), working towards a higher purpose
  –> Increased contact (as in Jigsaw Classrooms), provided that contact is in the proper context*

Question 52

what are stereotype threats

Answer 52

• Stereotypes might not just affect our judgment of
  others, but our own behavior
• situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group
• can affect performance
• Meta-analysis suggest effect is small to moderate

Question 53

what are the two types of attributions knowing that the outcome of a event in a persons life is due to the interaction of two factors: their traits and their environment

Answer 53

• In theory, the outcome of any event in a person’s life is due to the interaction of two factors: their traits and their environment
• In dispositional attribution, we attribute the outcome to a person’s traits
  –> You underperformed on the test because you are a bad
  student with a poor work ethic, low intelligence or more…
• In situational attribution, we attribute the outcome to the environment
  –> You underperformed because you were distracted by tragedy

Question 54

What is fundamental attribution error

Answer 54

• when we consistently overestimate the role of dispositional factors when evaluating others.
• one of the most relevant and consistent findings in the field

Question 55

what is a famous experiments of fundamental attribution error (FAE)

Answer 55

• Subjects randomly assigned to debate pro-Castro
  and anti-Castro positions
• Afterwards, each debater submitted a rating of other
  debater’s beliefs
• Even though the speeches were assigned at random,
  many debaters assumed that others agreed with the
  ideas they were debating (even though they knew the
  ideas were distributed by random assignment)

Question 56

why do we not include situational factors in our evaluation of others?

• how is this relevant to our view of world history
• how does bias vary in individualist and collectivist cultures

Answer 56

• Major reason why we do not include situational factors
  in our evaluation of others is that we are unaware of
  them (or, more commonly, unaware of their severity)
• Relevant to our view of world history: we often fail to
  consider the unique situational factors that world
  leaders were under at the time they made their
  decisions
• Bias may be lower in collectivist cultures and greater in individualistic cultures

Question 57

what are defensive attributions and how is this related to self-serving biases?

where is the bias more prevelant?
does the bias effect performance?
how do we improve performance?

Answer 57

• We particularly overemphasize dispositional factors
  when we succeed and overemphasize situational
  factors we fail (self-serving bias)
• This bias is common in individualistic cultures
  (Western) where there is emphasis on achievements
• Self-serving biases might influence performance
• In order to improve performance, it is important to
  address personal deficiencies (dispositions) as the
  environment (situation) is uncontrollable