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PSYC 302 > L5 (perceptual) > Flashcards

L5 (perceptual) Flashcards

1
Q

Sensation

A

the processing of the external world through receptors in the sense organs

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2
Q

Perception

A

organizing and interpreting sensory information

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3
Q

Empiricist view

A

infants have poor perception and experience is vital for sense development

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4
Q

Nativist view

A

perceptual development progresses through biological maturation, not experience

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5
Q

What’s the least developed sense at birth?

A

vision

“instinct blindness”

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6
Q

Vision grade at birth

A

20/200 (from VEPs) or 20/400 (from Teller tasks)

VEPs are visual evoked potentials; What newborns can see at 20ft, adults can see at 200ft

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7
Q

Vision grade at 8 months, 10 months, and 6 years

A

20/100 by 8 months, 20/50 by 10 months, 20/20 by age 6

difference in acuity between newborns and adults decreases with age

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8
Q

When do babies’ abilities reach near-adult levels?

A

8 months

e.g. smooth pursuit (or predictive ability) can’t be done until 4 months; scanning ability is limited (newborns tend to focus on high contrast areas)

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9
Q

How is the ability for smooth pursuit developed?

A

biological maturation, not experience

preterm infants do it much later after birth than full-term babies do

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10
Q

Color vision of young infants

A

not present at birth; young infants are only sensitive to bright colors and large patches of color (based on VEP studies)

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11
Q

What does it mean that humans are trichromatic?

A

we see color by comparing how different cones, which rapidly develop, respond to light

3 types of foveal cones: short/blue, medium/green, long/red

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12
Q

What causes color blindness?

A

one or more absent cones, or a weak response in cones of a certain type

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13
Q

Color perception is an example of

Categorical perception

A

perceiving clusters of likeness that does not necessarily transfer to physical likeness

color is determined via wavelength (a continous variable) but perception is categorical

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14
Q

How do linguistic differences impact color perception?

A

little to no impact; cultures without color words or with fewer color words perceive the same categorical boundaries of color

suggests that the categorical perception of color is innate

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15
Q

Evidence for categorical perception of color in preverbal infants

A

in a habituation task, 4-month-olds look longer at a change in color (categorical) than a change in tone of the same color

confirmed with fNIRS and suggests that categorical perception of color is innate

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16
Q

2 real-life applications for the role of experience in color experience

Hint: involves humans and monkeys

A
  1. humans born above the arctic circle are less sensitive to color, especially in the fall
  2. monkeys raised with only monochromatic light (not full wavelengths) do not categorize color the same way humans/typical monkeys do (have more than 3 clusters)
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17
Q

3 types of depth cues

A

binocular cues (requires 2 eyes), monocular/pictorial cues (requires only 1 eye and exists in 2D pictures), dynamic cues (moving objects)

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18
Q

Binocular disparity

A

retinal image of each eye is slightly different but our visual system fuses the two so that we don’t see double

closer objects have more disparity

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19
Q

Convergence

A

eye muscles are more tense when looking at closer objects

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20
Q

Stereopsis

A

using binocular cues to see depth

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21
Q

Nativist view of stereopsis

according to Descartes

A

we are endowed with innate computational systems to convert binocular information into depth perception

stereopsis is not necessarily innate (i.e. present at birth) but relies on biological maturation and the properties of the visual system

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22
Q

Berkeley’s theory of the development of depth perception (i.e. stereopsis)

empiricist view

A

babies learn to associate binocular cues with depth by building associations between convergence (i.e. amount of eye strain) and length of reach over time

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23
Q

How are binocular cues tested in infancy?

A

stereograms

artificially generated images that can only be seen when they are fused by the two eyes

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24
Q

When do infants’ eye movements begin to follow the movements of stereograms?

A

3-4 months

however, babies do not reach reliably for objects at 3-4 months so stereopsis couldn’t be from built-up experience with stereograms

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25
Q

Strabismus or amblyopia

A

eyes are misaligned

usually fixes itself by ~2 months but 4% of children have it beyond this period and the brain eventually suppresses input from the less clear eye

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26
Q

Effect of strabismus on stereopsis

A

stereopsis is worse if strabismus is not surgically fixed by age 2

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27
Q

How is stereopsis tested in kittens?

A
  • kittens are made to wear alternating eye patches (no binocular input)
  • binocular neurons are pruned away and no amount of later experience can resurrect them
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28
Q

3 kinds of pictorial cues in 2D images

aid with monocular depth perception

A

interposition, convergence in the distance, texture gradients

  • interposition: overlapping shapes in front
  • convergence in the distance: parallel lines meet at the horizon
  • texture gradients: repeating patterns get smaller when farther away
29
Q

How is pictorial depth tested in babies?

A

ames window

  • present a flat stimulus (e.g. window) where it appears like the texture gradient shifted in depth
  • with one eye covered, baby should systematically reach for the longer side if they have pictorial depth
30
Q

Findings on pictorial depth from the ames window study

A

7-month-olds, but not 5-month-olds, reach to the long side of the window

this suggests that pictorial cues develop at ~6 months

31
Q

2 kinds of dynamic cues

A

motion parallax and optical expansion

32
Q

Motion parallax

dynamic cue

A

relative movement of near and far objects to the motion of the eye

when you turn your head to the left, near object moves faster and further toward the right than the far object

33
Q

Optical expansion

A

retinal image of objects expand in size as they get nearer to you and the nearer object expands more quickly

a 1-month old blinks at expanding images (looming objects) but premies don’t avoid (blink) loooming objects until later, suggesting that dynamic cues are innate and emerge due to maturation

34
Q

When do dynamic cues, binocular cues, and pictorial cues develop?

Remember the visual cliff/looming objects, Berkeley, and ames window studies

A

1 month (dynamic cues), 4 months (binocular cues), 7 months (pictorial cues)

  • dynamic cues are almost never misleading (stable input from both eyes)
  • binocular cues need good acuity and require both eyes to be aligned (no strabismus)
  • pictorial cues are constantly misleading and are often illusions
35
Q

Size constancy

i.e. perceptual constancy

A

an object is perceived as maintaining its size despite changes in its distance from us (and thus, changes in its retinal image size)

near objects occupy more of the retinal space

36
Q

How is size constancy in infants tested?

is size constancy innate?

A
  1. Habituation: show newborns one object placed at varying distances (thus, varying retinal image sizes)
  2. Test: show the old object and a larger identical one that is farther away with their retinal image sizes equated
  3. Result: newborns looked toward the new object, suggesting that they habituated from the old object and that they have size constancy

newborns saw the old object as one repeated object despite changes in retinal size

37
Q

Object segregation

A

the perception of separate objects in the visual array

newborns understand that a gap between objects means that they are separate

38
Q

Common motion

motion cue to object segregation

A

elements that move together are likely part of the same object

Example: if someone picks up a cup and the saucer stays behind, they are probably two separate objects

39
Q

How are motion cues tested in infancy?

Kellman & Spelke task

A
  1. No baseline preference for the broken rod relative to the solid rod
  2. Induce a negative preference to an occluded moving rod (just the solid rod moving back and forth behind a box)
  3. Baby still looks toward the broken rod, suggesting that they were able to use motion cues to fill in the blanks (i.e. could infer that the moving rod was solid)

suggests that motion cues are innate because, although newborns fail at the task (2-month-olds succeeed), newborns succeed in studies using strobe motion

40
Q

Error babies make in perceiving pictures

distinguishing 2D from 3D

A

newborns can recognize 2D versions of 3D objects (i.e. understand that pictures are stand-ins for 3D objects) but try to pick up objects in a picture

error stops by 19 months but can be prolonged in babies raised in cultures that have no pictures

41
Q

4 inherently appealing characteristics of faces to newborns

A

symmetry, high contrast, movement, top heavy (not humanness)

newborns show the same preference for other top-heavy configurations and are not able to distiguish faces from them

42
Q

What kinds of faces do newborns prefer?

A

faces that are interacting with them (e.g. direct gaze, happy, attractive)

  • newborns also prefer their mom’s face within 4-6 waking hours after birth
  • younger siblings of autistic children who are at high risk of developing autism themselves have different social stimuli preferences (e.g. inverted face, averted gaze)
43
Q

2 systems view of infant face preference

A

an initial crude face perception system (e.g. orienting to top-heavy stimuli) gets replaced by a more sophisticated one (e.g. learns about specific faces)

  • face tracking goes away by 1-2 months then comes back and is improved dramatically by 3-4 months
  • trough of the u-shaped curve is when systems are competing over dominance
44
Q

How does face scanning develop over 8 months?

A
  • mainly high-contrast areas first
  • focus on eyes and a bit on the mouth by 2 months
  • increase in mouth attention by 8 months (possibly reflects language learning)

HR infants later diagnosed with autism don’t show these developmental patterns

45
Q

What is driving the development in face scanning?

change before and after 4 months

A

amount of face experience
* before 4 months, faces activate the FFA bilaterally and infants view faces 1/4 of the time awake
* after 4 months, infants begin to show right hemisphere lateralization (like adults)

focus decreases with age as the brain becomes more specialized

46
Q

Developmental changes in face perception

based on the visual-paired comparison task

A

by 9 months (but not 6 months), infants are better at distinguishing different human faces than different monkey faces

47
Q

Perceptual narrowing

A

babies’ face discrimination abilities narrow based on the faces they experience

e.g. tendency to prefer faces they’re most used to seeing like those of the same species (humans)

48
Q

Gender preferences in face discrimination

A
  • if raised primarily by a female caregiver, prefer and can better discriminate female faces by 3 months
  • if raised primarily by a male caregiver, prefer and can better discriminate male faces by 3 months

some studies show that the effect in males is less strong

49
Q

Do newborns show a face preference for their own race?

i.e. other-race effect

A
  • no significant difference in white newborns’ looking time to own and other race faces
  • white 3-month-olds look longer to Caucasian faces rather than other races

same pattern found in Chinese infants

50
Q

Can experience influence the other-race effect in infants?

A

infants exposed to a diverse environment (e.g. lab or family) showed no bias for faces of their own race

51
Q

Perceptual narrowing from the other-race effect

before and after 9 months

A
  • before 9 months, infants are equally capable of distinguishing between 2 faces of any race
  • from 9 months, they have trouble discriminating between 2 faces of any other race vs 2 faces of their own race

9-month-olds group faces of all other races into one category

52
Q

What do 12-month-olds associate racial in-group vs out-group faces with?

A

positive valence (e.g. music); negative valence

53
Q

Newborn preferences in terms of motion and interaction

A
  • newborns prefer biological motion (e.g. right-side up hen) to scrambled motion (e.g. random motion and upside-down hen)
  • female newborns prefer face-to-face interactive point-light walking hens than back-to-back

male chickens are pretty antisocial and highly polygynous

54
Q

Sound preferences of newborns at birth

A
  • own mom’s voice to other moms’ voices
  • language sounds to non-language sounds
  • own language to a foreign one
  • familiar nursery rhyme (with familiar words) their mom read to them during last weeks of pregnancy
  • detect big changes in pitch and loudness
55
Q

How do cochlear implants work?

A

they bypass sensory regions and directly stimulate auditory areas in deaf children

56
Q

Is there a critical period for hearing?

A

cochlear implants work better the earlier they’re used (before age 2) because brain auditory areas haven’t reorganized yet to deal with other sensory input

implanted adults can hear but don’t do as well at perceived, particularly language sounds

57
Q

Music preferences of infants

A
  • infant-directed singing over adult-directed singing, and singing over speech
  • consonance over dissonance even at birth and even if their mother is deaf (similar pattern found in chicks and monkeys), suggesting adult-like music perception

preference measured in looking time toward source of sound

58
Q

Infant preferences in Western music

A
  • equally likely to notice within-key and out-of-key note changes
  • Western infants more likely to detect complex rhythm changes than Western adults (but Balkan adults do well)

suggests perceptual narrowing

59
Q

What factors influence the manual exploration of infants?

for haptic perception

A

position (e.g. sitting, lying down), age (e.g. motor development), and SES (in North America)

infant exploration via touch (especially with mouths) peaks at 6-7 months

60
Q

What differences do infants notice in “holding time” habituation tasks?

for haptic perception

A
  • newborns notice differences in shape (they dishabituate to a new shape)
  • from 2-12 months, infants notice differences in hardness, temperature, and weight
61
Q

Taste perception of newborns

A
  • make adult-like expressions to sweet, sour, and bitter tastes
  • sucrose (e.g. in breast milk) is soothing to very young infants
  • taste still acquired (e.g. aversion to bitter milk lessens if given occasionally)

reflects prenatal experience of taste/smell through their mother

62
Q

Intermodal perception

A

the ability to integrate information taken in by multiple sensory modalities into one coherent experience

63
Q

Empiricist view of intermodal perception

William James

A

young infants can’t integrate multisensory information as it takes repeated associations

“baby feels it all as one great blooming, buzzing confusion”

64
Q

Constructivist view of intermodal perception

Jean Piaget

A

infants’ conception of their mother comprises of several bits of sensory info and they actively construct whole mom over time and experience

e.g. seen mom, heard mom, smelled mom, tasted mom

65
Q

Amodal sensory information

A

invariant features that cut across modalities (e.g. tempo and rhythm are seen, heard, and felt)

4-month-olds attend to amodal matches

66
Q

Intercessory redundancy

A

information presented redundantly across two or more modalities facilitates learning

helps babies focus on most relevant (redundant) information

67
Q

Evidence for nativist view of interodmodal perception

Clue: pacifier

Meltzoff & Barton

A
  • 1-month-olds are made to suck on “smooth” and “nubby” pacifiers without seeing them
  • afterwards, they are shown both pacifiers and accurately match their textures

newborns succeed too, suggesting that intermodal perception is innate

68
Q

Mcgurk effect

A

auditory-visual illusion that shows change in auditory perception induced by incongruent lip movement

  • what you see overrides what you hear
  • from 2 months, babies look to the correct face depending on the sounds they hear
69
Q

Perceptual narrowing in intermodal speech perception

evidence from Mcgurk effect

A

young infants detect sound-face movement matches for non-native speech sounds and monkey sounds while older infants cannot

PSYC 302 (9 decks)

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