L10: Social Psychology Flashcards
First impressions
Initial judgments of the character of other people. Made quickly, with very little information, especially from faces.
Primacy effect
Order matters, we remember earlier info and take it into account more than later info
Factors that limit accuracy of first impressions
Heuristics, impression management, confirmation bias
Heuristics
A quick mental shortcut to get an impression of someone
impression management
Strategies people use in an attempt to put their best face forward. Includes Self-promotion, Ingratiation, Exemplification, Intimidation, Supplication
False consensus effect
This tendency to use the self as an anchor and overestimate the extent to which other people’s beliefs and attitudes are similar to our own
Confirmation bias
Attending to information that’s consistent with an initial impression, and ignoring information not consistent with these beliefs.
Accuracy of first impressions
Generally, fairly accurate. The more we get to know someone, the more accurate we are. The better our motivation to be accurate, the more accurate we are likely to be
Attribution theory
when explaining others’ behaviour we tend to attribute the behaviour to internal OR external factors
Dispositional attribution
Internal factors such as traits, values, attitudes, and beliefs
Situational attribution
External factors, such as events and context
Self-serving bias
We are more likely to attribute our successes to internal explanations and our failures to external explanations
Fundamental Attribution error
When people try to figure out the cause of another person’s behaviour in Western cultures, they tend to overestimate the impact of internal influences and underestimate the impact of external influences
Individualistic society
tend to value independence, autonomy, self-reliance to a greater extent
Collectivistic society
tend to value interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony to a greater extent
Stereotyping
beliefs, schemas, or automatic associations that link whole groups of people with certain traits or characteristics.
Prejudice
learned attitudes or affective responses toward or about a group and its individual members. can be positive or negative, but usually discussed as being negative
Discrimination
differential treatment/ behaviours directed against people because of their group membership
Social categorization
we categorize people into different groups based on shared characteristics or common attributes. is adaptive (allows us to make predictions about individuals) , but has costs (often not accurate and can blind us to the reality that people are diverse)
In-group favouritism
We tend to like members of our group more
Out-group derogation
disliking people who are not in your group
Out-group homogeneity effect
“they are all alike; WE are unique and diverse”
Overt racism vs symbolic racism
Overt Racism = Hate crimes, racial slurs, swastikas
Symbolic racism = indirect forms of discrimination, such as social policies
Robber’s Cave Study
- sought to examine how prejudice and discrimination might develop and how they might be reduced
- demonstrated realistic conflict theory: competition for resources increased prejudice
- prejudice reduced by forcing the groups to work together to reach common goals, but contact alone was not enough
Contact hypothesis
under appropriate conditions, interpersonal contact is one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members
Realistic conflict theory
Prejudice and conflict arise from competition for scarce resources among groups
Social identity theory
a person’s self-concept and self-esteem are derived from the status and accomplishments of various groups to which the person belongs. prejudice and conflict arise from in-group favouritism and discrimination may make one feel better about their own group membership
Explicit attitudes
Easy to report, conscious of it, can be updated with new info
Implicit attitudes
Quick, automatic, unconscious, not aware of it difficult to update
Elaboration likelihood model
Dual process theory of persuasion: central and peripheral routes
Cognitive dissonance theory
We strongly desire cognitive consistency in which beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours are compatible. When there is discrepancy b/n beliefs and attitudes we experience dissonance, and act irrationally to reduce it.
Post-decision dissonance
Decision can’t be undone, so after the discus one focusses on the positive features of the chosen option and the negative features of the option not chosen.
Social influence
The automatic way people are affected by the real and imaged presence of others
3 ways we yield to social influence
Conformity, compliance, obedience
Social norm
Commonly shared beliefs about appropriate actions that vary across context, culture, and time
Conformity
Changing our perceptions, opinions, or behaviour in ways that are consistent with group norms
Informational social influence
The need to be right and seek information
Social facilitation
the mere presence of others can boost arousal in a way that facilitates the dominant response
Social loafing
the tendency for individuals to expend less effort on a task when they are doing it with others rather than alone
Obedience
Changing our behaviour in response to commands by perceived authority figures
Milgram Studies
To what extent will people comply with requests/directives from a perceived authority figure to harm another person? 40 men @ Harvard university everyone went to at least 300 v and 65% went all the way
Replicating Milgram today: Burger Study
Same methodology: 70 men & women
Findings: 70% continued to 150 V (max allowed). although obedience diminished, it is by no means extinct today
Instrumental aggression
aka proactive aggression, harmful behaviour that has a purpose to it
Hostile aggression
aka reactive aggression, motivated by hostility with the goal to harm someone
Theories of aggression
Biological & environmental models
Prosocial behaviour
actions intended to benefit others. ex. helping, comforting, sharing, cooperating
Altruism
refers to behaviours intended to benefit another without expectations of anything in return
Reciprocal altruism
actions that benefit others, despite some immediate risk or cost that are repaid in the long run
Norm of reciprocity
- give and take rule: if someone helps us, we should help them in return
- people can get very dissatisfied when there is no reciprocation in return
overcoming the bystander effect
if you need help and people are around, identify one person and ask them directly for help. when given responsibility, people are much more likely to help
two explanations for the bystander effect
- diffusion of responsibility
- pluralistic ignorance
Bystander effect
the presence of others inhibits helping
Mere exposure effect
the more you see a novel stimulus, the more you like it. easier to cognitively process familiar stimuli
Interpersonal attraction (factors)
1) Proximity: we are more likely to get together with someone when they are physically nearby
2) Familiarity: we tend to like people who are known to us
3) Similarity: we tend to like similar others: personality, attitudes, values, interests
4) Reciprocity: we like those who like us; very validating
5) Physical attractiveness: a rewarding visible and immediate stimulus; bias for beauty
Halo effect
belief that attractive people possess a bunch of other positive qualities
Attachment theory
Human infants develop intensely strong emotional bonds with caretakers as a survival strategy. Having these close emotional bonds increases survival, so children develop internal models giving rise to attachment styles.
Attachment styles
Characterized by intimacy avoidance and abandonment anxiety
1) Dismissive
2) Fearful
3) Secure
4) Preoccupied
