L01-L02 - Introduction, Ideas and History of Psychology Flashcards

Question

What is dualism?

Answer 1

Brain is not the same as mind

Answer 2

A theory that denies the existence of duality (ex. mind vs matter, God and the world)

Answer 3

Type of Monism brain activity produces mind, but minds cannot influence brain activity

Answer 4

Mind can influence matter What has mind and what does not? Can computers produce mind? Do animals with a brain have mind?

Answer 5

Had a left hemisphere stroke Described as losing her linear mind/conceptual mind. (Loss of planning, concepts, loss of self...) Loss of left hemisphere function promoted the right hemisphere functions. (Loss of object/subject separation) Difference between the right and left hemisphere Right hemisphere – The here and now, thinks in pictures and uses the body to know the present: Parallel processor Left hemisphere – About the past and future, focuses on details, thinks in language, what gives reminders to you.

Answer 6

The tendency to be overly sure of what we know, making us unreasonably confident that our own intuitions are more correct than the consistent results of 100-plus studies.

Answer 7

No credentials are available for the reader to see/no citing of academic research Company spokesperson is quoting – motivated by profit Survey results showed without the number of people participating in survey Experts writing in another field than their expertise Information on social media that you cannot verify Opinions of celebrities

Answer 8

Psychology was born in Western Europe, but it developed in two distinct and independent ways

Answer 9

Scientific branch – took root in universities, surrounded by intellectual endeavors and scientific experiments Clinical branch – took root in medical examination rooms where doctors used therapeutic interventions to treat people suffering from psychological disorders like anxiety and depression

Answer 10

Consciousness can be analyzed into a set of basic constituting elements. Psychology is to analyze the consciousness into basic elements and how they are related Introspection, systematic self-observation Problem of introspection: No objective, independent evaluation, reproducibility is low Overlooks the stream of consciousness Works in labs – what about real life?

Answer 11

Perceived colours, imagined objects, thought, feelings The process of examining one’s own internal thoughts and feelings. Involves self-reports (studying your own consciousness) May choose to not honestly reveal your own thoughts Sometimes unable to translate the feeling Possible others do not perceive your feelings the same way you do. If you could perfectly describe your consciousness there is no guarantee others will know what you mean. Sensations (contents of consciousness without meaning – all conscious thoughts and perceptions are a combination of sensations)

Answer 12

Psychology should investigate the function/purpose of consciousness rather than its structure. William James - “The purpose or utility of behaviour” as he put it. OPPOSED to structuralism because of the stream of thought and consciousness of subjective life. Artificial Intelligence – AI can now greatly exceed humans to solve certain types of problems but AI having a personality is much harder. Personalities are patterns of thought and behaviour that make a certain person react to a situation in a certain way. Consists of a relatively consistent way of thinking, feeling and behaving that together can explain how different people react in the same situations Psychology should analyze the function and purpose of consciousness Influenced by Darwin – theory of evolution Heritable characteristics that provide survival or reproductive advantage are more likely to be passed on to the next generation Interested in the REAL WORLD (people and behaviour) Interested in purpose of mind – introduced mental testing, development patterns and differences in sexes

Answer 13

Scientific branch – 1875: first research laboratory Defined psychology as the mental science of life Said that “Personality implies the incessant presence of two elements, an objective person known by a passing subjective thought and recognized as continuing in time” The self is both “knower” and “known” In studying human personality as a “known object”, we assume that to some degree that people have stable characteristics and that we can scientifically measure and identify those characteristics But there is a problem because when we study personality, we study ourselves. Tried defining consciousness – being aware of your own thoughts, feelings, impressions. The state of having mental facilities awake/active It is like a river, it flows – it is not chopped up in bits.

Answer 14

Wilhelm Wundt Scientific branch – Leipzig 1879: first research laboratory (his students brought psychology back to North America – in universities) Identified that Psychology was its own discipline outside of philosophy and medicine. Psychology is the discipline of studying conscious experience. Thinks mental states can be analyzed using introspection

Answer 15

Psychology must be purely objective excluding all subjective data or interpretations in terms of conscious experience. Not science of mental life but science of behaviour. Behaviourist manifesto – Psychology is a purely objective and natural science, serves for the prediction and control of behaviour, recognizes no differences between man and brute.

Answer 16

The goal of psychology should be to predict and control the BEHAVIOUR not describing/explaining mental states. No qualitative distinction between human and non-human behaviour: the difference in quantitative. Shifted focus away from philosophy Did research on non-human animals. Criticized introspection based on private experiences.

Answer 17

something of interest that can vary from person to person or from situation to situation.

Answer 18

variable whose measures are simply recorded

Answer 19

variable whose value is controlled by the researcher usually by assigning different values of the variable to different people. Some variables can be either measured or manipulated but others can only be measured (like gender, height and ethnicity...)

Answer 20

Acquisition Generalization Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous recovery

Answer 21

– Pairing of food and bell (in dog example) is introduced

Answer 22

– Tendency to respond to stimuli that are like the ‘bell’ in this case so that learning is not tied too closely to only a specific stimulus. The more closely related the two stimuli are, the more likely they are to be generalized.

Answer 23

– We learn to respond to a particular stimulus and not to a similar stimulus – preventing overgeneralization

Answer 24

– Active learning process where there is a weakening of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimuli in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

Answer 25

– The reappearance of an extinct behaviour after a delay

Answer 26

gradually changes random behaviours into desired target behaviour.

Answer 27

reversion to evolutionarily derived intinction behaviours instead of demonstrating newly learned responses

Answer 28

a school of psychological thought that attempted to explain how various elements group together to form objects, arguing that perception is more than a simple piecing together of building blocks. Gestalt in German = form Influenced the psychological study of perception. Form of humanistic therapy

Answer 29

Dots in picture look like they are forming something

Answer 30

You can either see a vase or two faces, but you cannot see both at the same time.

Answer 31

Perceive that there is a triangle shape, but it is only “pac-man” figures towards each other.

Answer 32

We can recognize that these are all the same object no matter which way it is turned.

Answer 33

These look like “closed” figures, ex. I can perceive a triangle, circle and square, but it is not, it is just dotted lines.

Answer 34

We perceive those different coloured dots means different shapes, for example in this I see a 5. But it is not, it is just dotting all the same, just different colours.

Answer 35

Because these objects are close in proximity and farther from the other object, we believe that they are groups of objects but it is just objects separated from one another.

Answer 36

We perceive that there are two lines, one that is strait and the other curved, but what if they are both curved, it is not guaranteed.

Answer 37

Optical illusion of movement When separated stationary stimuli are shone one after the other, we think it is all one thing moving but it is not

Answer 38

Central dogma – the whole is more than the sum of its parts Opposed to structuralism Empiricism

Answer 39

all learning comes only from observation and experiences.

Answer 40

Based on astute observation and accurate measurements

Answer 41

The process of basing one’s confidence in an idea on systematic, direct observation of the world usually by setting up research studies to test ideas. When scientists evaluate the validity of an idea, the don’t rely on whether the idea intuitively makes sense or personal experiences, they use the scientific method. Scientists are empiricists, they base their beliefs on systematic, objective observations of the world.

Answer 42

set of propositions about what people do and why they do it. Theory-data cycle is developing a theory about what people do and collecting data that is compared with the theory either confirming or disconfirming the theory.

Answer 43

a prediction about what will happen based on the theory

Answer 44

observations from a study, usually in numerical form collected from people at certain places at certain times.

Answer 45

when the study has been performed more than once on a new sample of participants and came to the same conclusion

Answer 46

A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on valid science

Answer 47

Our awareness of both the external world (the events taking place around us) and the internal world (awareness of ourselves and our own thoughts, feelings and behaviours)

Answer 48

Approach to therapy centred around the idea that people must take responsibility for their lives and actions

Answer 49

Seeks to help clients accept themselves and be themselves with no pretense or self-imposed limits Therapist listens attentively and non-judgementally Therapist is non-directive, seeking not to answer questions but helping the client find the answers to their questions themselves. Three factors crucial to a therapist's success Genuineness Unconditional positive regard – non-judgemental Empathetic understanding – what it would be like to be in the client’s shoes.

Answer 50

Brief, non-confrontational, client-centred therapy design to change specific problematic behaviours such as alcohol addiction or drug use. This can be done by drawing out the client’s goals and reducing ambivalence (the state of having mixed feelings/contradictory ideas about something) and classifying discrepancies between how the individual is currently living and how they would want to live.

Answer 51

More modern humanistic therapies Client-centred and gestalt therapy are integrated Creates a genuinely empathetic and accepting atmosphere but also seeks to challenge the client with the aim of deepening the experience

Answer 52

Replaced behaviourism as the most influential model since behaviourism could not explain certain phenomena easily.

Answer 53

processes that used to be labelled “mental” like perception, thinking, decision-making, memory, problem-solving, etc... (This is what cognitive psychology studies)

Answer 54

Behaviours can be explained by analysis information processing. Experimental studies use behavioural reactions to deduce underpinning cognitive processes.

Answer 55

“Brain (and so is memory) is like a digital computer Process – how are memories created, maintained, revived? Encoding, storage, retrieval, recall

Answer 56

What is stored, retrieve, recalled A memory representation (memory trace, memory record) is a unit of information, that can be processed

Answer 57

Short-term store – Like RAM of computer, restricted capacity, holds information for a short time Long-term store – Like the hard disk of a computer, nearly infinite capacity, holds information almost forever

Answer 58

A form of noncontingent reinforcement, in which individuals learn behaviour that has no actual relationship with reinforcement

Answer 59

learning that occurs without either incentive or any clear motivation to learn.

Answer 60

a theory of how people’s cognitions, behaviours, and dispositions are shaped by observing and imitating the actions of others

Answer 61

The idea that personality guides cognition about the world in ways that can shape the environments people choose, serving to reinforce or amplify their personality

Answer 62

Cognitive - “mental” like perception, thinking, decision-making, memory, problem-solving Emotional – understand our ability to feel, express and perceive emotions

Answer 63

A form of reductionism: attempt to explain human behaviour by recourse to its biological basis This branch of psychology explores the relations between behaviour and processes and structures of the central nervous system

Answer 64

To explain the neurobiology of memory An excellent example of how reductionist methods advance through levels of analysis.

Answer 65

Considered the fifth lobe of the brain Hidden under the temporal, frontal and parietal lobes Allows us to perceive the inside of our bodies, permitting us to feel internal pain

Answer 66

All behaviour can be explained in terms of drives or other intra-psychological forces Psychodynamics aims to make the unconscious conscious so the behaviour can be controlled. The theory assumes that humans are by nature aggressive and evil and driven by sexual impulses. Societies need to control this potential for violence to protect humans from destructive nature. Inspired by Sigmund Freud

Answer 67

Something that is inherited or socially adapted We act differently because we go through different experiences Behaviour is a result of tension and conflict

Answer 68

actions will stop when needs are fulfilled because there is no more motivation

Answer 69

Psychodynamic psychotherapists support Freud’s theories but believed that he had insufficiently emphasized the individual’s “real” (as opposed to fantasizing) relationships with others Present-day psychodynamic psychotherapists – use technics that bear Freud’s imprint but they have modified the treatment in various ways to allow for the expanded view of the ego’s capabilities along with the importance of the real (rather than just imagined) relations with others.

Answer 70

Interpersonal therapy A brief – 12-16 sessions – treatment that builds on the assumptions that psychological disorders are often the result of social isolation that cuts a person off from the emotional nourishment provided by healthy relationships Often used as a treatment for depression and other things like social anxiety disorder and bulimia Starts with an assessment of what factors changed in a person’s life at the time the depression began.

Answer 71

Focused on the unconscious as main motor of behaviour Developed psychoanalysis – clinical psychology Observed patients suffering from psychological disorders but he believed the same principles underpin “normal” and “abnormal” behaviour Strongest influence on psychology in western world

Answer 72

Freud’s ideas are not empirically supported but this theory has taken big steps toward answering questions about what makes up the personality.

Answer 73

Freud popularized the idea that thoughts can occur below our conscious awareness. Our minds can perceive stimuli, activate activities, enact behaviours and even process complex information without being conscious. Freud was not correct about the unconscious thoughts, but he did bring the attention of psychology to it.

Answer 74

Freud suggested that our personalities as adults could partially be shaped by what happens to us as children (this was the starting point for many later theories)

Answer 75

Freud suggested that psychological processes of the mind could account for medically inexplicable disorders of the body

Answer 76

Freud suggested that disorders in the mind could contribute to physical symptoms in the body and further research led psychologists to find that psychosomatic symptoms were a thing.

Answer 77

Freud was the original psychotherapist. His basic proposition that people could be cured of psychological disorders or relieve their symptoms by talking to someone about their experience was ground-breaking. Found many of his patients suffered with hysteria, now called conversion disorder Symptoms were psychogenic (result of unknown psychological cause)

Answer 78

A method used in psychoanalysis therapy (the patient says anything that comes to mind, no matter how apparently trivial, embarrassing or disagreeable. Freud assumed all ideas were linked by association so that the emotionally charged “forgotten” memories would come out sooner or later – but people showed resistance, so it did not work

Answer 79

Conscious – focus of current awareness Pre-conscious – consciously accessible thought, feelings and memories Dynamic unconscious – Inaccessible memories, instincts and desires

Answer 80

A form of perception that occurs without conscious awareness Our psyche consists of three elements – Their interactions and conflicts determine our behaviour (and personality)

Answer 81

Follows the pleasure principle. Attempts to avoid pain and increase pleasure. Primal drives, basic nature (the wild animal within)

Answer 82

Morality, conscience, ideals, aspirations (your perfect self)

Answer 83

Reason and self-control, tries to mediate superego and id.

Answer 84

The various ways in which the ego is thought to cope with conflict between the unconscious desires of the id and the moral constraints of society (Anna Freud)

Answer 85

The ego redirects the aggressive impulses of the id from their intended targets to a more defenceless target (The id’s reaction to aggression is usually, more aggression, retaliation, attack and punishment).

Answer 86

People, instead of acknowledging it in themselves, see others as possessing a disliked trait or feeling.

Answer 87

Ego keeps unwanted feelings, thoughts and memories below the level of conscious awareness.

Answer 88

The ego prevents the perception of a painful or threatening reality as it is happening.

Answer 89

Psychodynamic; Therapeutic approach and theories developed by Freud and supported by his followers Generally deemphasized sex and gave more importance to the influence of social environment Psychoanalysis; Theories and therapeutic methods used by Freud but NOT SUPPORTED by his followers Influence of the libido, sexuality and childhood experiences

Answer 90

A network of neurons running throughout your brain and body

Answer 91

a collection of neurons

Answer 92

The major bundle of nerves, encased in your spine, that connects your body to your brain.

Answer 93

Carry information from the outside world (ex. Light) and within your body (ex. Signals from the immune system) to the brain

Answer 94

Send signals to get your motor running – to make the body take action – whether to move your legs, make your heartbeat faster, or remove your finger from flame of a burning candle. Motor refers to movement

Answer 95

They connect neurons. They interpret, store and retrieve information about the world, allowing you to make informed decisions before you act. You “only” have about 6 million sensory and motor neurons combined.

Answer 96

AGAINST psychodynamic model and behaviourism: pessimistic view, environmental determinism Stong and influential in clinical and personality psychology Assumption Humans are neither motivated by strong deterministic biological drives nor by environmental factors: try to reach full potential Tries to understand human behaviour by detecting patterns in life histories

Answer 97

1. Physiological – desire for food, shelter and clothing 2. Security – Desire for job security 3. Social – Desire for affiliation and acceptance 4. Self-Esteem – Desire for status and position 5. Self-Actualization – Desire for fulfilling life and fulfill one’s potential

Answer 98

Much of the original research that led to identifying the “Big Five” (personality traits) was conducted mostly with WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic) people. Are these the building blocks for human personality for all cultures? If people’s traits are socially learned or shaped by early experience, then cultures that differ dramatically in values, behaviours and practices might encourage a different structure of traits After an experience involving 50 different distinct cultures in every continent except Antarctica – the same Big Five revealed themselves in nearly in all the countries surveyed. Possible there was a problem with the translation – we cannot know for sure Suggested that personality differs by region – even in the same countries

Answer 99

Think the psychoanalytic approach is too concerned with basic urges like sex and aggression, tension reduction and the past. It is not sufficiently concerned with the search of the meaning, of self-actualization and the present and future. Humanistic view, if you want to understand a person’s behaviour, you need to step in their shoes and experience the world like they do, here and now, not in the past. Client-centred therapy – or person-centred therapy – seeks to help people accept themselves as they are and to be themselves with no pretense or self-imposed limits. The therapist listens attentively and non-judgmentally, being nondirective, seeking not to provide answers but to create an atmosphere in which the client feels valued, understood, and comfortable to make their own decisions. Everyone has a natural tendency to grow and the therapist's job should be to create conditions that facilitate this growth.

Answer 100

Discover brain region involved with aggressive behaviour

Answer 101

Aggressive actions are results for frustrations

Answer 102

To determine the cause of aggressive behaviour, are needs to identify reinforcers and antecedent conditions

Answer 103

One would study the cognitions that go along with aggressive behaviour to analyse what info processing leads to it

Answer 104

One would explore what personal values and social conditions led the individual to engage aggressive behaviour and not to age with activities that would further personal growth.

Answer 105

Nothing is more obvious/undeniable than you have a conscience. Everything about the world could be an illusion, we do not know, but we do know we are conscious Cartesian dualism – consciousness meets at the brain's pineal gland