KQ6: How secure was Soviet control over Eastern Europe, 1945-89? Flashcards
How did Stalin control Eastern Europe?
-Helped EE Communist parties win power and fill political vacuum left after war
-EE countries become one party states
-Uses Cominform to make them follow the same policies as the USSR
-Secret police root out opposition to Communist governments and USSR
-Soviet troops stationed in EE (justified by saying it was for restoring law and order)
-Rebuilds EE economies by following Soviet economic policies. Nationalises industries and central state planning. Uses Comecon to make sure they trade with USSR and promises aid to cooperating countries
-When Soviet control is threatened, USSR prepared to use military force
What did people in Eastern Europe think of Soviet control?
-Some hoped it would bring industrial growth, like that achieved by USSR before the war
-Pleased it provided stable government and security
-Many resented restrictions on travel to foreign countries, loss of freedom of speech and democracy
-Some economic recovery 1945-55, but people generally unhappy with economy - produced what USSR wanted not what people wanted, wages fell behind other countries (including USSR), shortages (coal, milk, meat), scarcity of consumer goods common in the west (e.g: radios, tvs)
-Frustrated by lack of ability to protest - demonstrations crushed (e.g: Soviet tanks killed 40 and wounded 400 in East Germany in 1953)
In which ways did Nikita Khrushchev differ from Stalin?
-Stalin died in 1953, Khrushchev became leader in 1955
-More relaxed
-Ended USSR’s feuds with China and Yugoslavia
-Talked of peaceful coexistence with the West
-Made plans to reduce expenditure on arms
-1955 attended first summit since 1945 with Br, Fr, USA and USSR
-Said he wanted to improve living standards for Soviet and EE citizens
-Released 1000s of political prisoners
-Agreed to withdraw Soviet troops from Austria
-Seemed to signal that he’d allow greater independence for EE countries
What was de-Stalinisation?
-Began with Khrushchev’s secret speech 1956 - denounced Stalin’s purges and described him as an evil tyrant. Then:
-Released more political prisoners
-Closing down of Cominform
-Invitation of Tito (leader of Yugoslavia) to Moscow
-Dismissal of Stalin’s former Foreign Minister Molotov
What was the Warsaw Pact?
-Set up by Khrushchev in 1955
-Used by USSR to continue aim of creating buffer against Western attack
-Military alliance - member states pledged to defend each other if one was attacked
-Included all Communist countries in EE, except Yug., dominated by USSR
How did Khrushchev deal with opposition in Poland in 1956?
-Polish demonstrators attacked the police, protesting because food prices increased but wages didn’t
-53 rioting workers killed by Polish Army
-Polish government could not control demonstrators, K moved Soviet troops to border
-October: K accepted appointment of new Polish leader Gomulka- leader of Communist resistance during war. He did not see eye to eye with Polish communists who’d been ultra loyal to Stalin. This move helped stabilise P
-Red army withdrew to P border and left P army and gov. to sort things out
How did opposition to Soviet control of Hungary begin?
Hungarians hated restrictions imposed by Rakosi’s hard-line Com. govt:
-Lack of freedom of speech
-Secret police
-Presence of Soviet troops
What events took place in Hungary 1956?
-June 1956: a group within Hungarian Com. party opposed Rakosi. Kremlin ordered Rakosi to retire
-Replaced by Gero, also not liked. Huge student demonstration in Oct 1956 resulted in Stalins statue pulled down
-USSR allowed well-respected Com. Imre Nagy to from a govt., and began to withdraw Soviet troops
-Thousand of local councils created to replace Soviet power
-Thousands of Hungarian troops defected from army to join rebels
-Nagy planned to hold free elections, create impartial courts, restore farmland to private ownership, get Soviet army entirely out of H, leave WP and declare H neutral country. Hoped Eisenhower would support this
How did USSR respond to Nagy’s planned reforms in Hungary?
-Seemed ready to accept some of the reforms, but would not allowed H to leave WP
-Nov 1956: thousand of Soviet troops and tanks moved into Budapest
-Hungarian uprising crushed after 2 weeks of bitter fighting
-About 3000 H and 7000-8000 R killed, and 200,000 H fled into Austria to escape S forces
-Western powers protested to USSR, but took no action (distracted by Suez crisis)
What were the results of the Hungarian uprising?
-Imre Nagy and other Hungarian leaders arrested and executed
-Khrushchev made Kadar new leader; he crushed all further resistance
-About 35,000 anti-Com. activists arrested and 300 executed
-Some of the reforms introduced; Hungary more free than before 1956
-Khrushchev would not allowed H to leave WP
Why did people want to leave East Germany in the 1950s?
-Thousands leaving EG via WB by the late 1950s
-After HU crushed, many decide the only way to escape Com. was to leave
-Political reasons: hated restrictions on freedom and lack of democracy
-Economic reasons: standards of living falling further behind those of West
-West deliberately made WB showcase for advantages of capitalism: shops, freedoms, wealth, variety. EB people couldn’t not notice these things
-Tempted to leave as it was easy to do; EG’s could move freely into WB
How did Khrushchev respond to people leaving East Germany?
-Worried: many leaving were highly skilled workers. ‘Brain drain’
-Didn’t want Com. undermined by thousands of G leaving for a better life under Cap.
-13 Oct 1961: EG soldiers erected barbed wire fence along border of EB and WB. Ended free movement between E and W
-Then replaced by concrete wall; all crossing points sealed except Checkpoint Charlie.
-Border guards given orders to shoot people trying to cross wall.
-Wall caused much chaos and confusion - families divided and Berliners unable to go to work
How did West react to the Berlin Wall?
-Oct 1961: US troops regularly went into EB via CC to see Soviet reactions
-27 Oct: Soviet tanks pulled up to CC and refused to allow further access to the East. US and Soviet tanks faced each other all day in a tense stand-off, though eventually pulled back
-West didn’t like the wall, but tolerated it. Kennedy: “it’s not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war”
What was the significance of the Berlin Wall for the Communists?
Protective shell around East Berlin
What was the significance of the Berlin Wall for the West?
A prison wall
What was the significance of the Berlin Wall for the world?
Symbol of the division of Germany, Europe, and Communist East/Capitalist West
How did opposition to Soviet control of Czechoslovakia begin?
-Dubcek became new leader of Czech communist party in 1968. He was a committed Communist but thought Communism could be less restricted
-Learnt lesson of HU, and assured Brezhnev that Cz had no plan to pull out of Comecon and WP
-Censorship relaxed; intellectuals launch attacks (call them corrupt and useless) on Communist leadership
-New ideas appearing everywhere - ‘the Prague Spring’
-By summer of 68, more radical ideas emerging (e.g: allowing another political party, the Social Democratic Party, to operate as rival to Com.)
Why was USSR worried about Czechoslovakia?
-USSR worried about losing control of Cz - one of most important countries in WP, with strong industry
-USSR worried new ideas might spread to other EE countries
-Brezhnev pressured to stop reform in Cz from EG leader Ulbricht and P leader Gomulka
How did the USSR respond to reform in Czechoslovakia?
-Tried slowing down reform by arguing with Dubcek
-S, P and EG troops performed high profile training exercises on Cz border
-Economic sanctions considered (e.g: cancelling wheat exports from USSR, but idea rejected in case Cz turn to West for help)
-July 1968: USSR and Cz held a summit conference. Dubcek agreed not to allow a new Social Democratic Party, but stuck to other reforms
-Aug: conference of other WP countries issued vague declaration, calling on Cz to maintain political stability
-20 Aug: suddenly and unexpectedly, B sent S tanks into Cz
What was the result of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia?
-Little resistance to Soviet forces
-Dubcek removed from power but not executed
-Ideas that might’ve reformed Com. silenced
-After 1968, mood of optimism in Cz changed to one of despair
-Formerly pro-Soviet country now become resentful of USSR
-Gave rise to Brezhnev doctrine: laid out essentials of a Com. country (one-party state, member of WP)
Why did the USA and USSR agree to limit their nuclear weapons programmes in the 1970s, culminating in SALT I Treaty in 1972?
-Environmentalists pointed out damage nuclear testing did to the environment
-Doubts raised about morality of nuclear weapons, encouraged by anti-nuclear movements in the West
-Nuclear arms race costing too much money. Both sides realised money could be better spent on improving living conditions
Why were superpowers able to discuss human rights and other issues more openly?
-End of Vietnam War,1975, improved relations between USA, USSR and China
-Helsinki Conference 1975: all countries agreed to accept 1945 borders and respect human rights
-Brezhnev and Nixon has good working relationship. B went to Washington and N went to Moscow for SALT talks
-US and Soviet astronauts met up and shook hand in space - very symbolic
Why did Iranian Revolution cause the Cold War to freeze again in the 1980s?
-1979: overthrow of pro-American Shah result in new Islamic government- anti-American and anti-Communist
-Changes balance of power in Middle East
-Causes superpowers to worry over how the other would react
Where were Civil Wars in the 1980s and why did they cause the Cold War to freeze again?
-Nicaragua, El Salvador, Angola
-Communist rebels (funded by USSR) tried to overthrow governments (funded by USA)
Why did President Jimmy Carter cause the Cold War to freeze again in the 1980s?
He openly criticised USSR suppression of Soviet dissidents
Why did the USA and USSR’s activities regarding nuclear weapons cause the Cold War to freeze again in the 1980s?
-In 1977, USSR starts replacing old missiles in EE with new SS-20 missiles. -In response US develop Cruise missile and station Pershing missiles in WE
-US Congress refused to ratify SALT 2 agreements
Why did activities in Afghanistan cause the Cold War to freeze again in the 1980s?
-Soviet troops invade Afghanistan in 1979 to protect pro-Soviet govt. from Mujahideen
-Alarming to West that USSR get so close to western oil supplies
-USA respond by sending money, arms to Mujahideen
What did the USA and USSR do to Olympics that caused the Cold War to freeze again in the 1980s?
-USA boycotted Moscow Olympics in 1980, in protest of Soviet involvement in Afghanistan
-Then USSR boycott LA Olympics 1984
How did Reagan cause the Cold War to freeze again in the 1980s?
-Called USSR ‘the Evil Empire’
-Supported anti-Communist forces in Afghanistan and Nicaragua
-Planned to end arms race by escalating it, including development of Strategic Defensive Initiative after 1982 (‘Star Wars’)
-Tough liner strongly supported by other Western leaders (e.g: Thatcher)
What factors explain the rise of Solidarity?
-Polish economy in crisis in late 1970s. Government has little idea what to do about it
-Patience of workers tried by Communist propaganda, telling them how well Poland was performing
-Strikes broke out when government announced increases in price of meat
-Workers at Gdansk shipyard, led by Lech Walesa, put forward 21 demand and started a free trade union - Solidarity. Membership reached nearly 10 million in 1981
Why did the Polish government initially agree to Solidarity’s demands?
-Knew Solidarity’s support was strong in some vital industries (heavy industry, shipbuilding). Membership high among skilled workers, so strikes among these workers could devastate economy
-Initially not seen as a rival to Com. govt., many joined as they thought it would make things better
-Walesa worked closely behind the scenes with Communist leader Kania. Both worried Soviet tanks would enter if Solidarity went too far
-Solidarity very popular, Walesa a kind of folk hero
-Has support of Catholic Church. Nearly all Poles Catholic and it was a force for stability - govt. do not want to alienate them
-Govt. plying for time - hoped Solidarity would split into factions
-Gained Western support - Walesa regularly interviewed by Western media and Solidarity logo became iconic. USSR had to treat Polish more cautiously than Hungary or Czechoslovakia
Why did the Polish government decide to clamp down on Solidarity?
-Solidarity appeared to act like a political party, not just a trade union - Govt. feared it might try to set itself up like a new Provisional Govt.
-Soldiarity was a challenge to the USSR’s plans for EE - Brezhnev would not allow Polish Communist Party to be dictated by a union
-To prevent USSR from having to intervene to restore Communist control
-Poland sinking into chaos - food shortages, rationing, industrial production and trade declining, inflation and unemployment rising, strikes continuing
-Solidarity splitting into factions, including an extremist faction that issued a statement of “sympathy and support for all downtrodden peoples of the Soviet bloc”
How did the Polish government clamp down on Solidarity?
-Feb 1981: civilian PM ‘resigned’ and General Jaruzelski took over
-Dec 1981: Brezhnev ordered Red Army to carry out ‘training manoeuvres’ on Polish border
-Jaruzelski introduced martial law
-Walesa and 10,000 other Solidarity leaders jailed
-Solidarity suspended
-1982: Solidarity declared illegal
-150,000 Solidarity members taken into custody for ‘preventive and cautionary talks’
What was the significance of the Solidarity movement?
-Showed Polish people no longer trusted Com. - supporting Solidarity was the best way to show this
-Com. could only stay in power using force, or the threat of it
-Com. control seemed very shaky if military force not used
-US suspicion of USSR increased - imposed trade sanctions on Poland, resulting in economic chaos
How did Solidarity achieve power in Poland?
-From 1983: Solidarity members released from jail, but continued to be harassed and sometimes murdered
-1983: Jaruzelski started campaign against Catholic Church (priests beaten up and murdered). Increased govt. unpopularity
-Economic problems intensified after US trade sanctions - currency devalued and inflation hit 70%
-Solidarity re-emerge from hiding and cooperate closely with CC; openly broadcast Radio Solidarity after 1986
-1988: Solidarity organised boycott of Polish elections
-Walesa visited by officials from foreign governments, who treated him as a leader-in-waiting
-1989: Gorbachev made it clear USSR would no longer send in troops to prop up Com. regimes in EE
-1989: free elections held, Solidarity won nearly all seats
-1990: Walesa became President of Poland
