Korean History Flashcards
Define following terms:
Prehistoric
Before writing systems were developed by a culture (or civilization)
Define following terms:
History
Starts with the adoption of writing your own history
Define following terms:
Protohistory
When own writing systems were not available yet, mentions were found in written sources (oldest mention of Choson were by the Chinese in 700BCE)
Define following terms:
Historiography
The way historians write history
Define following terms:
BP vs. BCE
BP (=before present): is a time scale commonly used by archaeologists and geologists to refer to dates that were obtained through the radiocarbon method (= is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon; January 1st is commonly used as the commencement date of the age scale, since the method became practicable in the 1950’s)
BCE (= Before Common Era) + CE (= Common Era): is a neutral alternative naming of the ‘Anno Domini’ system (BC= Before Christ and AD= Anno Domini).
The Early inhabitants consist of two groups of people, which ones?
- Hominid (=name for the humans that were related to, or a member of a family of erect, primate mammals)
- lived as early as 500 000 years ago (according to Korean archeologists)
- officially: they populated the Korean peninsula by at least 200 000 years BP. - Homo sapiens:
- began to populate the Korean Peninsula around 30 000-40 000 years ago, replacing/intermingling with the earlier inhabitants.
What were the modern humans’ 2 paths of migration into Korea (30 000 BP-10 000 BP)?
➡️ Northern route (on the map in blue)
- Modern people who eventually settled in Northern Japan & the Korean peninsula. The people that settled in Northern Japan did not cross the Korean peninsula.
➡️ Southern route (on the map in red)
- Modern people who settled in South West Japan and China. Those people who settled in South West Japan did cross the Korean peninsula.
How is the Paleolithic era characterized?
- Starts from approx. 200 000 BP - 8000 BP (6000 BCE). Some scholars say it started earlier (700 000 years)
- The use of stone tools. Their presence show a progression of over thousands of years from large rough tools to smaller and more delicate ones.
- MAP: What is striking? Most sites are located on riverbanks (the Yellow River is the natural border between China and Korea)
- Important site: Kŏmun Moru cave (North Korea) –> limestone cave which contains stone tools and bones of wild animals, rhinoceros, megaceros (like a deer), monkey, bison, boar (=zwijn), horse, elephant, tiger, cave bear.
The presence of the bones of 2 animals (nog opzoeken) were important because they made it possible to estimate the date of the cave, which was 400 000 years ago. - Nomadic life: because of the cool weather, people had to move to caves or set up temporary camps. They lived in small bands.
They hunted, fished and gathered.
Neolithic Era (New Stone Age) When was it?
8000 BCE - 2000 BCE
Neolithic Era (New Stone Age) How did its (Asian) meaning differ from the west?
In the West, the Neolithic Era was the beginning of agriculture.
In Korea, it marked the beginning of pottery.
Neolithic Era (New Stone Age) is marked by several major developments. Which ones?
- The appearance of Pottery:
Earliest pottery was characterized by raised or stamped decoration. Was later replaced with incised decoration (= ‘chulmun t’ogi’ or “comb-pattern” pottery).
During that time, people also made adornments and symbolic items such as necklaces and small animal figures. - settled life began (with earth pit houses)
- The beginning of agricultural cultivation (= The Neolithic revolution): this was a transition from hunting, fishing and gathering to agriculture (-> the beginning of agriculture is often considered a momentous moment in history). Archaeological evidence shows they were cultivating rice and millet.
Slash and burn technique: A technique for farming where forests are burned and cleared and the ashes provide some fertilization. Through this, the ground is also freed from weeds. However after several years, fertility declined and weeds increased –> it was a good technique but it was not sustainable (because weeds came back after several years). It also wasn’t the quickest way: after clearance, fields could be cultivated for 2-3 years but then had to be left fallow for more than 10 years.
Most commonly used tools: ttabi => frequently used until the 19th century (plow like tool).
- Agriculture developed slowly: hunting, fishing and gathering were still important so there was a coexistence between the two.
It also became more important because climate bettered.
The beginning of the Bronze age.
When was this and what are its characteristics?
- 2000 BCE - 300 BCE
- earliest sign of the arrival of this new age is the emergence of a new pottery style: ‘plain pottery’ aka ‘undecorated pottery style’ (mumun t’ogi) and dolmen tombs.
- Discovery of bronze artifacts = Chinese-lute dagger (dates back to the 13th century BCE): indicating the arrival of bronze wares and later bronze technology from northern China.
Found in the area of Mansoja (in Shandong) and North China
Although the bronze metal technique originated from China, not a single ritual vessel was found in Korea (= an important artifact from China).
indicates that:
1. Korea was culturally different from the Chinese mainland.
2. Korea was more part of the north-east Asian cultural zone (due to the dolmen and dagger) and was rather distinct from the Chinese mainland
The edification of Dolmen (고인돌) is another characteristic of the Bronze Age, what can you tell me about it?
Greatest number can be found on/near the Korean peninsula (approx. 35 000 found North and South)
- usually marked a grave/tombe
- Three types of dolmen:
탁자 “table type”: consisting of 4 stones with 1 large capstone covering the others. Mainly found in the North.
바둑 “go-board type” (Japanese name + game), “padduk” (Korean): Large stone placed upon several/piles of small stones. Mainly located in the Southern part.
“Capstone-type”: capstone lying flat on the ground. Most common one and found all over the peninsula.
Two indications of social stratification through hierarchy:
- Social organization of the country:
Dolmen were not just for everyone, it was only for a selection of (important) people
The dolmens also indicate organization and leadership. To be able to move those dolmens, people had to be mobilized:
- -> geologists also said those stones were transported for miles
- -> technology to move those dolmens must’ve been easy/simple, but it still required a lot of people.
Chosŏn etymology
- To avoid confusion with the Chosŏn dynasty, it is referred to as ‘old chosŏn’
- Chosŏn was first mentioned in a Chinese philosofical text called Guānzi, compiled by Guan Zhòng and edited in 26 BCE: it was mentioned with the word ‘cháo’ (meaning dawn= morning/xiān= ‘fresh’/’calm’) –> early morning country; because of Korea’s geographical location to China.
Tan’gun: the origin myth
- Legend/story on how Korea came to exist
- written in classical Chinese (13th century) by a budhist monk Ilyŏn
- the legend mentions how ‘old chosŏn’ was created
- even though it’s considered a legend, some scholars in 1993 claimed they found the tomb of Tan’gun in the North –> questioning the legitimacy of the North and the South relationship. They built a mausoleum on the site, and it’s a tourist spot nowadays.
(read story on ppt)
Old Chosŏn (7th century BCE - 108 BCE). What can you tell me about the politics during this period?
Chosŏn was a confederation (when a group of people or nations form an alliance) that united polities on
- The Liáodōng peninsula
- The northwest part of the Korean peninsula.
In the text Weilüe (written during the 4th CE, an abridged history of the Chinese Dynasty), it is recorded that the ruler of Chosŏn began to use the title ‘king’ around the year 320 BCE.
Guǎnzi had diplomatic relations with the state of Qi in the 7th century BCE.
The diplomatic center was most likely located in Liaodong. But after the State of Yan attacked Chosŏn (3rd century BCE) it moved its political center to Pyongyang –> marked the beginning of the Later Period.
Theories existed about where the border between Yan and Chosŏn was located. It most likely was Amnok (Yalu) river.
Wiman: a warrior soldier of the state of Yan. He carried out a coup, succeeded and ended up establishing the new dynasty of Wiman Chosŏn. First kept friendly relations with the Han dynasty (206-220 BCE) and was able to strengthen itself with the support of Han’s more advanced technology.
He then subjugated 2 regions, Zhenfan and Lintun and gradually expanded its influence to Yemaek. In 109 BCE, he eventually attacked Chinese territory. Emperor Wu responded with sending 60 000 soldiers to Wiman Chosŏn. He resisted 1 year and king Ugo, who did not want to surrender, was killed by a faction of people who did want to surrender.
Old Chosŏn (7th century BCE - 108 BCE). What can you tell me about the culture in the Early period (7 BCE - 4 BCE)?
- A distinctive Bronze Age culture emerged in northeast China that was different from that of the Yellow River Basin.
- It was marked by the use of Mandolin-shaped bronze daggers, Misong-ri-style pottery and dolmen-style tombs.
Old Chosŏn (7th century BCE - 108 BCE). What can you tell me about the culture in the Later period?
A distinctive metal culture blossomed in the Taedong River basin, and it was characterized by the use of “slender bronze daggers”. This culture spread throughout the Korean peninsula and even reached as far as Japan and the coast of Russia.
This period is also known as the early Iron Age because iron tools gradually began to be used in this time.
Chosŏn artisans began to apply iron-making techniques to the making of bronzes to produce more sophisticated and high-quality bronzeware.
After Wiman seized the throne, King Chun and his followers moved to the southwest of the peninsula, resulting in the expansion of bronzeware production and trade networks.
How would you describe misogni (or misong-ri)-style pottery?
- horizontal handles, gourdshaped body, trumpetshaped neck
- decorated sparcely with incised parallel lines.
- named after the site Misongni/Misong-ri on the Amnok (Yalou) River.
- extends south to Ch’ǒngch’ǒn River and its derivatives as far as the Taedong river.
Old Chosŏn (7th century BCE - 108 BCE). What can you tell me about its Regional trade and exchanges?
Knife money indicate that trade existed between Chosŏn and Yan.
Its main production were patterned animal hides and fur clothes. It also handled some of the trade between Chinese states and polities further south in the Korean peninsula.
They were able to acquire iron tools and the raw material needed for bronze production through this trade.
In the late 2nd century BCE, tensions developed with Han China. King Ugǒ seized control of all land and the overseas trade routes to China in order to profit from the trade as an intermediary.
The international trade network connecting the Chinese mainland with the Korean peninsula and Japan stagnated during the final years of Wiman Chosŏn.
The Han Commanderies (108 BCE - 312 BCE). What can you tell me about its localization and how has it been relevant today?
After Wiman Chosŏn fell, Han China established four commanderies within its former sphere of influence. The location of these four commanderies have been highly controversial in recent years because according to South-Korean government officials (not scholars), the commanderies were located outside the current Korean peninsula while Chinese scholars argued they were located within the Korean peninsula.
Today, a consensus among scholars has been reached; 3/4 commanderies were located within the Korean peninsula.
Han China set up the commandery of Lelang in the territory that had been directly controlled by Wiman Chosŏn.
It then established the commanderies of Zhenfan and Lintun in two polities that had been under Wiman Chosŏn’s control.
Xuantu, the most difficult because its location fluctuated. First it was located in North Korea and the Yemaek region. Later it moved South(/North?) West in Manchuria (Chinese territory).
The Han Commanderies (108 BCE - 312 BCE). What can you tell me about its evolution?
(Dissolution of the Chin state in the 1st c. BCE, dus de samnhan confederation gaan hier al van start)
In 82 BCE Zhenfan and Lintun were abolished (the army of the Han commanderies was driven out by Koguryo people)
In 75 BCE Xuantu was forced to move to the Hun River basin by the resistance of the Koguryŏ people, leaving only Lelang. For a while, Lelang continued to rule over parts of the former commanderies of Zhenfan and Lintun, but was eventually abandoned in 30 CE.
In 203-204 CE, the powerful Gongsun clan of Liaodong took control of Lelang and founded a new commandery named Daifang in part of the former Zhenfan commandery.
237-239 CE: Lelang and Daifang are controlled by Wei (Chinese). But the era of the Han commanderies ended when Lelang fell to Koguryŏ in 313 CE.
How did the Samhan confederation (Three Han) come to exist, how was it constructed?
The fall of Wiman Chosŏn and the establisment of the Han commanderies led to the dissolution of Chin state and the formation of many small statelets (guo).
(Deze statelets zijn de voorganger van de Samhan confederation)
Statelets: varying size, ruled by chiefs who were not king. The average population ranged from 10 000 - 15 000 people. According to ‘Record of the Three Kingdoms’, around 70 statelets existed.
The statelets combined formed regional confederacies of:
- Mahan: (54 guo), located in the rich farmlands of southwest Korea
- Chinhan: (12 guo), situated in the middle and upper Naktong River basin in southeast Korea
- Pyŏnhan: (12 guo), along the lower Naktong River basin and along the southeast coast.
–> thus got the name Samhan Confederations = three Han (Sam = 3, Han = China?)
The Samhan were, ethnically and culturally, the direct descendants of the peoples of the slender bronze dagger culture. They later merged and developed into the kingdoms of Paekche, Silla and Kaya.
Leaders of Samhan exercised power on basis of their military and economic might, rather than religious authority –> tombs of chiefs of the Chinhan and Pyŏnhan contained dozens of iron arrowheads and iron spears.
What can you tell me about the regional trade and exchanges during the Four commanderies and the Samhan confederations?
The international trade network connecting the Chinese mainland with the Korean peninsula and Japan had stagnated during the final years of Wiman Chosŏn, but it was revived after Chinese luxury goods and advanced technology imported through Lelang stimulated demand for trade in the southern statelets.
The Chinhan and Pyŏnhan regions produced large quantities of iron that played an important role in promoting international trade. Iron was exported to Lelang, Japan, Mahan and Tongye, and were made into ingots for distribution. They were also used as a form of currency when other goods were traded.
How were the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE - 668 CE) formed and how is it characterized?
So after the fall of Wiman Chosŏn, the 4 commanderies were established by Han China. These two happenings led to the dissolution of the Chin state and the formation of many small statelets that formed regional confederacies called the Samhan confederations. The statelets underwent a series of conquests and consolidations on the Korean Peninsula that led to the formation/merging of the Samhan confederation to the Three Kingdoms of Koguryo, Paekche and Silla.
Koguryŏ occupied northern part of the Korean peninsula and Manchuria; developed out of tribes in this area.
Paekche emerged from the Mahan region and conquered neighbouring polities in the southwest.
Silla emerged in the Chinhan region and expanded to occupy the southeast portion of the Korean peninsula, conquering the Kaya confederation.
The period is characterized by shifting alliances among the three kingdoms as they battled for supremacy and defended their countries against Chinese invasions. Eventually, Silla allied with Tang China and defeated Paekche in 660 CE and then Koguryŏ in 668.
Tang had designs on conquering the whole Korean peninsula, but in 676, Silla drove out the Tang army and united the peninsula under one government for the first time.
(So up until the 3 kingdoms, the Korean peninsula had never been under one government)
Koguryŏ (37 BCE - 668 CE)
Rise and Fall of Koguryŏ
According to the History of the Three Kingdoms (ordered by King Injong, completed 1145 by Kim Pusik), the founder of Koguryŏ was Chumong in 37 BCE, but it existed earlier.
After Chosŏn was conquered by Han China, the Koguryŏ people formed their own polity in the Liaodong area. Later they joined forces with a group that moved south from Puyŏ, developing into a confederated kingdom, sometimes called Koryŏ.
Then it subjugated a number of neighbouring statelets and moved its capital from Cholpon (Manchuria) to Kungnaesŏng, on the banks of the Amnok river in 3 CE.
In 313 CE, Koguryŏ attacked the remaining of the Han commanderies (Lèlàng & Daìfāng) and expanded into the Liáodōng peninsula.
During reigns of Kwanggaet’o and his son Changsu, Koguryŏ expanded southward to the Han River region and northward to the plains near the Xīng’ān ling mountain range.
What can you tell me about the Koguryŏ - Suí war (598-614)?
After unifying China, Suí Dynasty wanted to bring neighbouring states into its sphere of influence. Koguryŏ launched a preemptive attack on SuÍ in 598, and the subsequent Chinese invasion ended in failure. Suí commenced another invasion in 612 that was also unsuccesful.
631: destruction of the Kyŏnggwan, a memorial commemorating Koguryŏ’s victory over Suí, by an envoy from Táng.
What can you tell me about the Koguryŏ - Táng War (645-668)?
After Táng Dynasty succeeded Suí, the second Táng emperor also tried to bring Koguryŏ under its control, launching an unsuccesful attack in 645. Koguryŏ repelled a second invasion in 662 with victories by the general Yŏn Kaesomun (who had killed King Yŏngnyu in 642 and taken control of the government). His death led to internal strife.
Eventually Koguryŏ fell to the combined forces of Silla and Táng in 668, because it had been weakened from the 2 wars with Suí, Táng and internal conflicts.
How did society look and function in Koguryŏ?
Koguryŏ went through 3 ruling stages (28 kings in total)
- 37 BCE - 1st c. CE: rotation of kings
- 1st c.CE - 4th c. CE: hereditary
3) 4th c.CE - 668 CE: centralized aristocratic state
You had the ruling class which consisted of the dominating Royal Ko family and the 5 aristocratic clans.
Most aristocrats lived in the capital, had large landholding and owned many slaves. They also mobilized the peasants under their control to cultivate their land.
They also had their own armies and participated in wars because it was a way of increasing the number of slaves and the amount of land they owned.
Commoners who were mostly independent cultivators who had to pay taxes to the government, served in the military and were mobilized as labor for public work projects.
Then you had low-born status and slaves who consisted of war prisoners and commoners who had fallen into ruin.
There was a strict penal code; traitors and rebels burned at the stake and were then beheaded. People who surrendered or defeated soldiers were killed.
What did the economy look like?
Koguryŏ’s economy was based on agriculture, but most farmland had to be left fallow for a year or more because composting methods were not developed.
Food production was insufficient since the climate was cold and because the kingdom’s territory was mainly located in mountainous areas.
Stone and wood tools were used, but from the fourth century, iron tools and ox plowing gradually became more common.
Iron technology developed and iron production became very important.
Fishing, livestock raising and hunting were also very important parts of the Koguryŏ economy.
The livelihood of the peasantry was insecure as a result of constant warfare and the instability of agricultural production (cold & mountainous). The government tried to prevent the collapse of poor peasants and operated a relief system called chindaebŏp or ‘relief loan law’ -> grain could be borrowed from state storehouses during the spring famine season, and had to be repaid after the autumn harvest.
But because of constant warfare and a high tax burden, many peasants ended up becoming slaves.
What were the Koguryŏ’s people known for? (cultural achievements) (1/6)
The Koguryŏ people were known for their martial qualities and to also have enjoyed dancing, music and drinking. Kŏmungo (six-stringed zither), was invented in the late Koguryŏ period.
Give an example of one of the cultural achievements of Koguryŏ (murals) (2/6)
The tomb murals can be divided into two periods:
- early period: scenes depicting everyday life
- Late period: scenes became more abstract and symbolic.
Early period:
In the early period, tombs were usually made with piled stones but they gradually developed into stone-chamber tombs that often depicted scenes of everyday life.
Muyongch’ong tomb (called Ji’an today) existed of two walls, the east wall and the West wall.
The east wall represents a group of dancers (on the right) that gave the tomb its name, spectators and a dog (on the bottom, not visible). On the left there’s a kitchen where goods are brought to. On the bottom right you have the master, accompanied by an assistant on a horse watching the dancers.
The west wall, opposite of the dancer mural, a double movement is depicted (which was quite unique). It had to be looked at from left to right. On the right side you have a man on a horse shooting deers (a scene that is read from right to left). This creates a dynamic image.
Later period: Painting of the Four Guardian Deities found in the Kangsŏ Three Tombs, discovered by Japanese officials during their occupation: - Blue Dragon (chŏngnyong) - White tiger (paekho) - Black tortoise-serpent (Hyŏnmu) - Red phoenix (Chujak) --> it depicted more symbolic scenes
Give another example of one of the cultural achievements of Koguryŏ. (3/6)
The adoption of Chinese character (Hanja) through the discovery of a stone tablet dedicated to King Kwanggaet’o.
It had 1802 characters on the 4 sides and had 3 sections:
1. foundation myth of Koguryŏ and genealogy of Kwanggaet’o
2. his conquests and achievements
3. his instructions for the maintenance of his tomb.
Tablet was rediscovered in the late 19th century, Japanese military officer made the first rubbing of the stele’s inscription in the 1888s.
Give another example of one of the cultural achievements of Koguryŏ. (4/6)
Confucianism:
Introduced in the 1st century BCE during the establishment of the Four Han Commanderies; accepted during the Three Kingdoms period.
In 372, Koguryŏ, a Confucian academy named T’aehak was established to teach Confucian classics and history. Its influence was also reflected in production of official histories.
Koguryŏ was the first Korean kingdom to write its official history; Yugi. Yugi was a 100-volume scripture, written in early Koguryŏ and reorganized into 5 volumes Sinjip in 600 by Yi Mun-Jin, a professor at T’aehak.
(Paekche had its own Documentary Records, Sŏgi, by Kohung in the 4th century CE
Silla had its National History, Kuksa, by Kŏch’ilbu in 545.)
None of these documents have survived, but a large part of their contents were probably incorporated in History of the Three Kingdoms (Kim Pu-sik)
Common desire of the Three kingdoms to put their sovereign dignity on display both at home and abroad.
Give another example of one of the cultural achievements of Koguryŏ. (5/6)
Buddishm:
Born in India, introduced to China in the 1st century CE; seems to have reached Korea in the 3rd century CE.
Koguryŏ was the first kingdom to accept buddhism because in 372, the monk Sundo/Shundao brought images of the Buddha and Buddhist sutras.
Many monasteries were established and Buddhist sculptures were created.
Gilt-bronze standing Buddha, discovered in Uiryŏng, but according to its inscription, originally made in Koguryŏ in 539 CE, making it one of the oldest extant Buddhist images in Korea.
Give another example of one of the cultural achievements of Koguryŏ. (6/6)
Astronomy:
Developed in Koguryŏ. Astronomical charts showing constellations.
Chosŏn star chart was based on a Koguryŏ astronomical chart.
Paekche (18 CE - 660)
How did Paekche develop/establish itself as a kingdom?
Paekche was established in 18 BCE in lower reaches of the Han River by refugees from Koguryŏ and Puyŏ descent.
It developed out of one of the Mahan statelets, but finally annexed the entire territory of Mahan during the 8th CE.
According to the legend, Paekche was founded when Sosŏno, the wife of Chumong (founder of Koguryŏ) left with her two sons Piryu and Onjo.
Paekche (18 CE - 660):
In what 3 periods can you divide Paekche?
- The Hansŏng period (18 BCE - 475 CE):
Capital was located at Hansŏng, south of the Han River.
It was a time of expansion, but in 475 CE Hansŏng fell to an invasion by King Changsu of Koguryŏ; Paekche was forced to move its capital south to Ungjin, located North of the Kum River. - The Ungjin period (475 CE - 538 CE)
A period of retreat and then resurgence. - The Sabi period (538 CE - 660 CE)
In 538 the capital moved to Sabi, located on the banks of Kum River.
It was a golden age of culture but in 660 CE defeated by Silla (who allied with Tang China).
Paekche (18 BCE - 660 CE):
How did Paekche’s political organization look like?
In the late 3rd century, during King Koi’s reign, Paekche developed into a centralized political structure consisting of 6 ministers and 16 official ranks.
Aristocratic families participated in chŏngsa-am council to elect chief minister.
Namdang (an important political organ) in which the king sat and handled state affairs.
There were 5 provinces that were administered by a governor.
