Korean History Flashcards

Question

How were the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE - 668 CE) formed and how is it characterized?

Answer 1

So after the fall of Wiman Chosŏn, the 4 commanderies were established by Han China. These two happenings led to the dissolution of the Chin state and the formation of many small statelets that formed regional confederacies called the Samhan confederations. The statelets underwent a series of conquests and consolidations on the Korean Peninsula that led to the formation/merging of the Samhan confederation to the Three Kingdoms of Koguryo, Paekche and Silla. Koguryŏ occupied northern part of the Korean peninsula and Manchuria; developed out of tribes in this area. Paekche emerged from the Mahan region and conquered neighbouring polities in the southwest. Silla emerged in the Chinhan region and expanded to occupy the southeast portion of the Korean peninsula, conquering the Kaya confederation. The period is characterized by shifting alliances among the three kingdoms as they battled for supremacy and defended their countries against Chinese invasions. Eventually, Silla allied with Tang China and defeated Paekche in 660 CE and then Koguryŏ in 668. Tang had designs on conquering the whole Korean peninsula, but in 676, Silla drove out the Tang army and united the peninsula under one government for the first time. (So up until the 3 kingdoms, the Korean peninsula had never been under one government)

Answer 2

According to the History of the Three Kingdoms (ordered by King Injong, completed 1145 by Kim Pusik), the founder of Koguryŏ was Chumong in 37 BCE, but it existed earlier. After Chosŏn was conquered by Han China, the Koguryŏ people formed their own polity in the Liaodong area. Later they joined forces with a group that moved south from Puyŏ, developing into a confederated kingdom, sometimes called Koryŏ. Then it subjugated a number of neighbouring statelets and moved its capital from Cholpon (Manchuria) to Kungnaesŏng, on the banks of the Amnok river in 3 CE. In 313 CE, Koguryŏ attacked the remaining of the Han commanderies (Lèlàng & Daìfāng) and expanded into the Liáodōng peninsula. During reigns of Kwanggaet'o and his son Changsu, Koguryŏ expanded southward to the Han River region and northward to the plains near the Xīng'ān ling mountain range.

Answer 3

After unifying China, Suí Dynasty wanted to bring neighbouring states into its sphere of influence. Koguryŏ launched a preemptive attack on SuÍ in 598, and the subsequent Chinese invasion ended in failure. Suí commenced another invasion in 612 that was also unsuccesful. 631: destruction of the Kyŏnggwan, a memorial commemorating Koguryŏ's victory over Suí, by an envoy from Táng.

Answer 4

After Táng Dynasty succeeded Suí, the second Táng emperor also tried to bring Koguryŏ under its control, launching an unsuccesful attack in 645. Koguryŏ repelled a second invasion in 662 with victories by the general Yŏn Kaesomun (who had killed King Yŏngnyu in 642 and taken control of the government). His death led to internal strife. Eventually Koguryŏ fell to the combined forces of Silla and Táng in 668, because it had been weakened from the 2 wars with Suí, Táng and internal conflicts.

Answer 5

Koguryŏ went through 3 ruling stages (28 kings in total) 1. 37 BCE - 1st c. CE: rotation of kings 2. 1st c.CE - 4th c. CE: hereditary 3) 4th c.CE - 668 CE: centralized aristocratic state You had the ruling class which consisted of the dominating Royal Ko family and the 5 aristocratic clans. Most aristocrats lived in the capital, had large landholding and owned many slaves. They also mobilized the peasants under their control to cultivate their land. They also had their own armies and participated in wars because it was a way of increasing the number of slaves and the amount of land they owned. Commoners who were mostly independent cultivators who had to pay taxes to the government, served in the military and were mobilized as labor for public work projects. Then you had low-born status and slaves who consisted of war prisoners and commoners who had fallen into ruin. There was a strict penal code; traitors and rebels burned at the stake and were then beheaded. People who surrendered or defeated soldiers were killed.

Answer 6

Koguryŏ's economy was based on agriculture, but most farmland had to be left fallow for a year or more because composting methods were not developed. Food production was insufficient since the climate was cold and because the kingdom's territory was mainly located in mountainous areas. Stone and wood tools were used, but from the fourth century, iron tools and ox plowing gradually became more common. Iron technology developed and iron production became very important. Fishing, livestock raising and hunting were also very important parts of the Koguryŏ economy. The livelihood of the peasantry was insecure as a result of constant warfare and the instability of agricultural production (cold & mountainous). The government tried to prevent the collapse of poor peasants and operated a relief system called chindaebŏp or 'relief loan law' -> grain could be borrowed from state storehouses during the spring famine season, and had to be repaid after the autumn harvest. But because of constant warfare and a high tax burden, many peasants ended up becoming slaves.

Answer 7

The Koguryŏ people were known for their martial qualities and to also have enjoyed dancing, music and drinking. Kŏmungo (six-stringed zither), was invented in the late Koguryŏ period.

Answer 8

The tomb murals can be divided into two periods: 1. early period: scenes depicting everyday life 2. Late period: scenes became more abstract and symbolic. Early period: In the early period, tombs were usually made with piled stones but they gradually developed into stone-chamber tombs that often depicted scenes of everyday life. Muyongch'ong tomb (called Ji'an today) existed of two walls, the east wall and the West wall. The east wall represents a group of dancers (on the right) that gave the tomb its name, spectators and a dog (on the bottom, not visible). On the left there's a kitchen where goods are brought to. On the bottom right you have the master, accompanied by an assistant on a horse watching the dancers. The west wall, opposite of the dancer mural, a double movement is depicted (which was quite unique). It had to be looked at from left to right. On the right side you have a man on a horse shooting deers (a scene that is read from right to left). This creates a dynamic image. ``` Later period: Painting of the Four Guardian Deities found in the Kangsŏ Three Tombs, discovered by Japanese officials during their occupation: - Blue Dragon (chŏngnyong) - White tiger (paekho) - Black tortoise-serpent (Hyŏnmu) - Red phoenix (Chujak) --> it depicted more symbolic scenes ```

Answer 9

The adoption of Chinese character (Hanja) through the discovery of a stone tablet dedicated to King Kwanggaet'o. It had 1802 characters on the 4 sides and had 3 sections: 1. foundation myth of Koguryŏ and genealogy of Kwanggaet'o 2. his conquests and achievements 3. his instructions for the maintenance of his tomb. Tablet was rediscovered in the late 19th century, Japanese military officer made the first rubbing of the stele's inscription in the 1888s.

Answer 10

Confucianism: Introduced in the 1st century BCE during the establishment of the Four Han Commanderies; accepted during the Three Kingdoms period. In 372, Koguryŏ, a Confucian academy named T'aehak was established to teach Confucian classics and history. Its influence was also reflected in production of official histories. Koguryŏ was the first Korean kingdom to write its official history; Yugi. Yugi was a 100-volume scripture, written in early Koguryŏ and reorganized into 5 volumes Sinjip in 600 by Yi Mun-Jin, a professor at T'aehak. (Paekche had its own Documentary Records, Sŏgi, by Kohung in the 4th century CE Silla had its National History, Kuksa, by Kŏch'ilbu in 545.) None of these documents have survived, but a large part of their contents were probably incorporated in History of the Three Kingdoms (Kim Pu-sik) Common desire of the Three kingdoms to put their sovereign dignity on display both at home and abroad.

Answer 11

Buddishm: Born in India, introduced to China in the 1st century CE; seems to have reached Korea in the 3rd century CE. Koguryŏ was the first kingdom to accept buddhism because in 372, the monk Sundo/Shundao brought images of the Buddha and Buddhist sutras. Many monasteries were established and Buddhist sculptures were created. Gilt-bronze standing Buddha, discovered in Uiryŏng, but according to its inscription, originally made in Koguryŏ in 539 CE, making it one of the oldest extant Buddhist images in Korea.

Answer 12

Astronomy: Developed in Koguryŏ. Astronomical charts showing constellations. Chosŏn star chart was based on a Koguryŏ astronomical chart.

Answer 13

Paekche was established in 18 BCE in lower reaches of the Han River by refugees from Koguryŏ and Puyŏ descent. It developed out of one of the Mahan statelets, but finally annexed the entire territory of Mahan during the 8th CE. According to the legend, Paekche was founded when Sosŏno, the wife of Chumong (founder of Koguryŏ) left with her two sons Piryu and Onjo.

Answer 14

1. The Hansŏng period (18 BCE - 475 CE): Capital was located at Hansŏng, south of the Han River. It was a time of expansion, but in 475 CE Hansŏng fell to an invasion by King Changsu of Koguryŏ; Paekche was forced to move its capital south to Ungjin, located North of the Kum River. 2. The Ungjin period (475 CE - 538 CE) A period of retreat and then resurgence. 3. The Sabi period (538 CE - 660 CE) In 538 the capital moved to Sabi, located on the banks of Kum River. It was a golden age of culture but in 660 CE defeated by Silla (who allied with Tang China).

Answer 15

In the late 3rd century, during King Koi's reign, Paekche developed into a centralized political structure consisting of 6 ministers and 16 official ranks. Aristocratic families participated in chŏngsa-am council to elect chief minister. Namdang (an important political organ) in which the king sat and handled state affairs. There were 5 provinces that were administered by a governor.

Answer 16

Agriculture developed early in the country and rice cultivation and irrigation facilities had already been introduced during the Samhan confederation. Handicraft production such as weaving and dyeing developed Metallurgy was developed and weapons, gold crowns, gold and silver ornaments and buddhist statues were made. Paekche also engaged in lively trade with southern China and the Japanese. It transferred products and technologies such as horses, silkworms, weaving and brewing to Japan.

Answer 17

- Metal craft flourished, 2 examples: 1. Excavated gold crown ornaments found in tomb of the 25th king of Paekche that matches a description in “History of the Three Kindoms". 2. Gilt bronze incense burner (excavated in 1996) and has the shape of a mountain and a dragon and on top of it a phoenix. It's a typical description of buddhist mountains. This type of incense burner was rare in Korea, and it was more common in China. The Korean assimilated the Chinese technique but adapted to their own taste.

Answer 18

Was founded in 57 BCE by the mythical Pak Hyŏkkŏse (who supposedly emerged from an egg), the progenitor of the Pak clan of the Saro tribe. In 660 CE, Silla allied with Tang China and defeated Paekche and then Koguryŏ in 668. Tang China had designs on conquering the whole Korean peninsula, but in 676, Silla drove out the Tang army and united the peninsula under one government for the first time in the history of Korea.

Answer 19

At first, their kingship was a rotation of the three most powerful clans until 356 CE: 1. Pak 박 2. Sŏk 석 3. Kim 김 It then became monopolized by the Kim clan. Then, Silla introduced a legal code in which a bureaucratic hierarchy was established according to a system of official ranks and attire = the "bone rank" system (6th century). It was a rigid hierarchical system based on inheritance (similar to 'royal blood' in Europe). It had a total of 17 office ranks which consisted of government positions and political positions (the political positions were hereditary). 1. Its highest position was "sacred bone": only people with this rank could become King (was abolished in 654). 2. Second, you had the "true-bone" rank: it included the rest of the Royal family and the two other powerful clans. With this rank you could get an official government position. After the abolishment of the previous position, only people with this rank could become king. 3. Lastly you had "head-ranks": contained 6 subdivision ranks, but only the 6th (the highest) to 4th rank appeared to have functioned. (see picture) If for example, you wanted to become Yŏng (1 of the 5 government posts), you had to have at least grade 5. As a true-bone rank for example, you could occupy any of the 17 office ranks. From True Bone to Four, it was hereditary. Yŏng until Sa was non-hereditary. During this period, Silla had another important body, namely 'hwabaek' (=council of notables). Its most important function was to discuss crucial state matters (f.e. the succession of the throne; warfare). Decisions had to be unanimous. They had 527 officially adopted buddhists. This council of notables wasn't an exception during Silla. It probably was present during the other two kingdoms (Koguryŏ and Paekche).

Answer 20

Because of its geographical location, Silla was the last of the three kingdoms to be influenced by Chinese culture. As a result, it developed its own particular culture. The Chinese writing system was introduced to Silla, but because of the differences in linguistic structure, 2 separate languages came to be used. In order to mitigate problems caused by this situation, Silla developed systems for writing the indigenous language using Chinese characters, like 'idu' and 'hyangchal' and they were used to write a form of poetry called 'hyanngga'. --> written hyanchal was difficult to decipher because it was written Korean while Hangul did not exist yet. So they wrote out Korean phonetic values in Chinese characters (they were able to do so because Chinese can be written in two ways, semantic (characters with meaning) and phonetic (only sounds)). 25 poems written in hyangchal survived in Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms. Dominant themes were: buddhism, death, warriors.

Answer 21

Kaya was a group of small polities located in the Nakdong River basin, between Silla and Paekche states. It is generally thought that Kaya developed from the Pyŏnhan confederation sometime in the first century CE, with the emergence of a statelet called Kuya under King Suro. Kaya remained a loose collection of polities ruled by individual "kings" while Paekche and Silla were becoming centralized states. Although some towns were warred with one another, they were also able to form a federation that was dominated first by Kumgwan Kaya (original Kaya) and later by Taegaya (great Kaya). Kaya's wealth came from deep involvement in maritime and their importance as centers of iron-working. They had extensive contacts by sea with the commanderies of Lelang and Taifang as well as with Japan, forming a key intermediary in the trade in high-value goods from the Chinese states. Due to Kaya's strategic location it became embroiled in the wars between Silla and Paekche. They were weakened by these wars but Kaya statelets continued to exist throughout the 5th century until they were finally subjugated in the 6th century.

Answer 22

- Silla was first founded in 57 BC. It allied with Tang China and defeated Paekche in 660 and Koguryŏ in 668. In 676 it drove out Tang army and united the Three kingdoms. - After its unification: 1. the former ruling classes of Paekche and Koguryŏ were given official ranks and absorbed into Silla elite. 2. It developed into an absolute monarchy based on strong military and enhanced economic power. And it created a centralized political system with a strong bureaucracy. 3. The military existed of: the central army; refugees from Paekche and Koguryŏ served alongside Silla people. And the provincial army, consisting of 10 garrisons 4. Royal authority strengthened but the power of the true-bone aristocrats declined.

Answer 23

1. Starts from mid 8th century: - the political and economic influence of aristocrats increased causing growing wish for control of the throne (from 836 to 935 there were 13 kings and 1 queen). - the central government's control over the country weakened, which made the emergence of other kingdoms possible, f.e. Later Paekche. Consequently, large scale-rebellions took place in the 9th century. 2. - Its foreign trade, that had flourished due to Chang Pogo, collapsed with his assassination in 846. - At the same time, bandits increased and in 839 Silla witnessed the eruption of large-scale rebellion in the former Paekche area. - Silla was unable to deal with the situation and in 892, Kyŏnhwŏn established later Paekche. Another rebel established Later Koguryŏ in 901 (in the central region of Korea). 3. In 918, Wang Kŏn overthrew Later Koguryŏ, changed the name to Koryŏ. 4. Warfare among Silla, Later Paekche and Koryŏ. In 927, the king of Later Paekche sacked the capital of Silla, killing the Silla king. At the request of the new king of Silla, Wang Kŏn of Koryŏ dispatched his troops against later Paekche in 935 and the last Silla king voluntarily surrendered to Koryŏ. In 936, Wang Kŏn overthrew the Kingdom of Later Paekche par force, thus uniting Korea without the help of a foreign assistant.

Answer 24

- After its unification, Silla underwent substantial growth since it now commanded far more territory and population. Taxes were reduced 1/10 of the harvest and 2 more markets opened in Kyŏngju. The royal family and aristocracy enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle thanks to their large landholdings, their ownership of slaves, livestock farms, islands and general increase in agricultural productivity. - "Stipend village system" granted aristocrats villages (in recognition of service) from which they could collect green taxes and mobilize peasants that worked on the land. In 687 however, a new system was introduced; "office land", where government officials received land and only the green tax from that land, nothing else. It was regarded as a way to control aristocrats (since they weren't able to mobilize peasants). - Silla traded both with Tang China and Japan directly and through diplomatic missions. °With Tang China they imported medicine, books, stationery, hand-crafted goods and silk. They exported silk, linen cloth, gold, silver, ginseng, medicines, horses, fur and hand-crafted goods. ° With Japan they imported silk fabrics, floss silk and exported gold, silver, iron, books, woolen cloth, brass tablewares and Buddhist texts. Even Muslim merchants came to Silla to trade. - Chang Pogo controlled maritime trade in East Asia (Korea-China/Korea-Japan), using his garrison at Chŏnghaejin as a base - On the other hand, the peasantry faced economic difficulties because agriculture still involved fallow farming and the various burdens they had to bear such as taxes, land rent and military service. Peasant life became even more difficult toward the end of the Later Silla period with the revival of the stipend village system and the expansion of the landholdings of the true-bone aristocracy.

Answer 25

Later Silla combined the cultures of Paekche and Koguryŏ with its own to form the foundation for a Korean national culture. Buddhism and traditional beliefs formed the core of the dominant culture. Pulguk Temple: according to the Memorabilia, the temple was built in 751-774. A smaller temple already existed at the site that was built in 528, so the Pulguk Temple became an extension of this smaller one (사 refers to temple). The Temple was located in the capital Kyŏngju. Two characteristics of the Temple: 1. It had 33 steps ("the bridge") to go from our world to the world of Buddha. 2. division of its grounds into distinct spaces. The most important areas are associated with a particular Buddha and sutra. In this period, most temples had 2 identical pagodas in front of the main hall. One of the distinctive features of the temple is that it has 2 pagodas of different styles in its main compound. - Sŏkka pagoda is more the typical-style pagoda during that time, having a simple design. - Tabo (= many treasures) pagoda is more sophisticated and has a more elaborate design that was not common at that time. - -> they both represent an aspect of Budddhist world views and together they form a dialogue (scene from the Lotus sutra).

Answer 26

The territory of the Palhae kingdom covered northern Korea, part of south and east Manchuria and part of what is now the Russian Maritime Province. It was established by Koguryo refugees (among who? Tae Chungsang and his son Tae Chŏyon). Tae Chungsang was a prisoner of Tang China who took advantage of insurrection (uprising) by the Khitans to escape to eastern Manchuria with a band of followers. In 698, Chungsang and Chŏyon established the state of Chin (not the same Chin from the Han commanderies, located in the northern part, renamed in 713 Palhae) in former territory of Puyŏ, which had been taken by Koguryŏ in the 4th century. Tae Chungsang became first king and its subjects were: the Koguryŏ people, Khitans, Mòhé/Malgals Palhae civilization reached its peak during the 9th century, it was called "Prosperous Country in the East". At the beginning of the 10th century, it came under attack of the newly united Khitan tribes and met its downfall in 926.

Answer 27

The ruling class mainly consisted of people from Koguryŏ (since the kingdom was founded by them). Rulers viewed themselves as successors of Koguryŏ and used the name Koryŏ for their country on diplomatic documents. Mòhé/Malgal; a tribe living along Amur River who had been subject to Koguryŏ's rule. They constituted the subject population except for a small minority who moved into the elite. Conflict existed between those 2 groups, which was an important factor in the downfall of Palhae. After the kingdom fell (926) the Palhae people separated into Koguryŏ people and Mòhé people. Many of the Koguryŏ people, including Palhae royal family, emigrated to Koryŏ. Its political system was adopted from the Tang China system which consisted of the Three Chancelleries and Six Ministries (Personnel, Revenue, Rites, Military, Justice and Public works). In the provinces, there were 5 regional capitals and the government adopted a 3-tiered administrative structure of 'pu', 'chu', 'hyŏn'. So the country was first divided in 15 pu, then each pu was divided into chu with each chu divided into hyŏn.

Answer 28

Its relations with Tang China remained hostile in spite of peace and diplomatic relations in 705. Tang also bestowed the title of Lord Palhae on Tae Chŏyon. During the reign of the 2nd king Mu, the Heishui Mòhé attempted to form an alliance with Tang. Palhae sent out forces to subdue the Mohe. Chang Munhyu then took an army to attack Dengzhou on the Shandong peninsula, killing its governor. Palhae had generally strained (gespannen) relations with Silla, but had friendly relations with Japan and the Göktürk empire. During the reign of the 3rd king Mun, Palhae restored friendly relations with Silla and Tang in an attempt to achieve greater political/economic stability and prosperity.

Answer 29

Despite Palhae's cold climate, agricultural production was high since it had vast plains. Dry-field farming was the predominant form of rice cultivation. Palhae actively engaged in livestock farming and hunting. Famous for its horses and pigs, the country exported horses to Tang. Its people also hunted rabbits and deer and exported animal hides to Japan and China. Weaving was also developed and it sent cloth to Tang as tribute and traded with the Khitan, Mohe and other tribes and countries. Wisŏng was well-known as an iron-producing region and used Koguryŏ iron-making technology to produce high-quality tools.

Answer 30

1. Its was a continuation of the Koguryŏ culture. 2. It incorporated many cultural elements from Tang China. Tombs: Of the surviving tombs, the principal ones are at Liudung Mountain and they faithfully follow the form of late Koguryŏ era tombs - mounds of earth lined with stone. The tomb of Princess Chŏnghye is a representative example of the style during that period. However, from the mid-Palhae period, much of Tang China culture was introduced to the country and brick tombs appeared that showed the influence of the Tang style. It's a compromise of the typical Koguryŏ-style (stone-covered roof) and the Tang China style.

Answer 31

In 918 Wang Kŏn overthrew Later Koguryŏ; changed the name to Koryŏ. After the fall of Palhae in 926, Koguryŏ took in its people and pursued a northern expansion policy in order to recover Koguryǒ’s former territory. Here, the same explanation of how Later Silla fell: (Warfare among Silla, Later Paekche and Koryŏ happened. In 927, the king of Later Paekche sacked the capital of Silla, killing the Silla king. At the request of the new king of Silla, Wang Kŏn of Koryŏ dispatched his troops against later Paekche in 935 and the last Silla king voluntarily surrendered to Koryŏ. In 936, Wang Kŏn overthrew the Kingdom of Later Paekche par force, thus uniting Korea without the help of a foreign assistant.)

Answer 32

1. During this time, Koryŏ faced a series of invasions by the Khitan-Liao dynasty, a group of nomadic people which formed in the early 10th century from Manchuria. The Khitan occupied present-day north China, Northeast China, Mongolia and portions of Russia and North Korea. 2. Khitan first attacked Koryǒ in 993 with subsequent invasions following in 1010 and 1018, all ending in Khitan’s defeat. Khitan dynasty was destroyed in 1125 by the Jurchen, who had established the State of Jin (North China; conquered by the Mongols in 1234) in 1115. The Jurchen also conquered the Northern Song (960-1227).

Answer 33

Koryŏ battled with the Mongols for about 60 years from 1231. After this, Koryŏ became a subject state of the Mongol Empire in 1270. In the 14th century, Koryo tried to get rid of the Mongol influence and, as the Chinese were overthrowing the Mongol dynasty of Yüan and establishing the Ming dynasty (1328-1644) in 1368, declared a pro-Ming policy. In 1388, as Ming tried to establish a Chinese commandery in the northeastern Korea, Ch’oe Yǒng and Yi Sǒng-gye launched an expedition, with the king’s approval, against the Ming dynasty. Yi Sǒng-gye took his troups as far as Wihwa Island, but finally he led his troops back to Kaegyǒng and seized power. In 1392, Yi Sǒng-gye established Kingdom of Chosǒn and became the first king of the Chosǒn dynasty (1392-1910).

Answer 34

- Political organization = a lineage-based aristocratic society (because the local gentry who had emerged in the Late Silla period, took up positions in the central government and created that). ➡️ The governing ideology was based on Confucian political thought ➡️ The state implemented a Chinese-style civil service examination but protected appointment system ➡️ The structure of government was based on the Tang system (Three chancelleries and Six ministries) The governmental organs included: - Royal Council (Chungch'uwŏn) - Censorate (ŏsadae) - Superintendence for Rules (Sikmokdogam) - General Military command (Yukbu) And an administrative division.

Answer 35

The population of Koryŏ is estimated to have ranged from 3 to 5 million people (similar to the UK) The social status system divided the population into the: - aristocracy: chŏnsikwa system (a system of the state that permitted aristocracy, Buddhist monasteries and people who performed duties for the state to collect tax over a parcel of land. This income f.e. was then used to provide for the recipient's livelihood). During military regime however in the late 12th century, a new group of powerful families became the privileged class. - middle class: who were lower-level administrators and ruling group in the countryside. Some local clerks (hyangni) were able to get into the central aristocracy through the civil service examination. - commoners: who made up the majority of the people, who were usually farmers and they had a variety of duties for the state, including military service. - Low born: who were for the majority unfree people.

Answer 36

Agriculture was the foundation of the economy in Koryŏ. The practice of fallow farming continued to the end of the Koryŏ period. Land ownership rights were guaranteed to all regardless of social status, but in reality, the largest and most fertile lands were owned by the aristocracy and the Buddhist monasteries. Large landowners used their unfree people (commoners and low-born) to cultivate it or rented it to tenant farmers (the rent was usually half of the harvest). Landowners had to pay 1/10th of the harvest as taxes to the government.

Answer 37

Handicraft production was carried out by trained artisans or in special districts called 'so'.

Answer 38

- Commerce was mainly conducted by Buddhist monasteries and took the form of barter exchanges (ruilhandel). - Kaegyŏn was a major trade hub linked by both land and sea routes to the rest of East Asia as well as the Middle East and India. - Principal partners were: - > Khitans: Korea exported mats with floral patterns, cotton cloth, precious metal, stationery, ginseng. It imported horses, sheep and silk. - -> Jurchen: Korea exported silk, silver coins, cloth, fabric. It imported golds, horses and weapons. - -> Japanese: Korea exported food, ginseng, books and it imported mercury and sulfur. - -> Chinese: Korea exported gold, silver, crafts, mats with floral patterns, paper, stationery and imported silk, jade, tea, spices, medicinal herbs, books, musical instruments, coins, ivory, pheasants.

Answer 39

The Koryŏ period is specifically and distinctively known for the coexistence of Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, shamanism and geomancy. This coexistence is found in the Ten Injunctions by Wang Kŏn, in which a monk Tosŏn is mentioned who said Buddhist temples needed to be built according to the geomantic theories of Feng Shui (= yin & yang + 5 elements). Its traces can be found throughout Koryŏ's culture: Buddhism: With the P'alman taejanggyŏn (=eighty thousand tripitaka). It was a massive project in the 12th and 13th century of printing the entire Buddhist canon called the 18 thousand tripitaka. It required carving 80 000 wooden blocks. But they were destroyed during an invasion by the Uighurs. They redid the project a second time, as a devotion to Buddha because by repeating this they asked protection from a mongol invasion. They succeeded but were invaded nonetheless. It is now Unesco heritage and is stored in the Haein Temple. - Chikchi (Buddhist text): is the oldest surviving book (1377) printed, using metal movable type --> it was the invented by the Koreans and first of its kind (in metal). The Chinese already a similar type, but in wood.

Answer 40

Confucianism: Confucian laws and social customs were propagated (spread) by the Koryŏ government (7th 'rule' of the 10 injunctions). To promote confucian education, the State Academy was established in 992, where people were trained in Chinese classics (at that time regarded as the highest institution). Academies were also established in the provincial areas. By the mid-Koryŏ period, 12 private Confucian academies flourished. Confucian historiography was done too, through the writings of Sillok (Veritable Records) and Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms). They were written by Confucian scholars according to Confucian conventions.

Answer 41

Celadon pottery represents one of the highest artistic achievements of the Koryŏ period. Techniques were originally developed in southern China and introduced to Koryŏ in the 10th century. - To produce celadon, clay containing some iron was first fired in a kiln at 700-800° C. - to create it grayish green color, a glaze containing 1-3 percent iron was then applied and the porcelain would be fired again at 1 150-1200° C. Evolution: - In the early Koryŏ period, the main types of celadon were tea sets and implements and ritual utensils. - Around the late 11th and early 12th century, production increased as it came into more widespread use. At this time, it developed its own distinctive style of celadon as a result of innovations in glazing and kiln structure. Koryŏ celadon reached its aesthetic peak in the early 12th century. - The quality began to decline in the 13th century, and production appears to have stopped by the 15th.

Answer 42

Yi Sŏng-gye was meant to invade China, but didn't. He came back to Koryŏ, seized power and founded the Chosŏn dynasty and became the first king. It was a centralized monarchy, based on Confucianism. At the top, you had the State council (Ǔijǒngbu) led by 3 High State Councilors. They deliberated over important questions; advised the king and conveyed his decision to the Six ministries. The Six ministries (yukbu) dealt with more detailed affairs of the state (same as during Koryŏ): - Households: taxation - Personnel - Military affairs - Punishments - Public works: concerning construction and maintenance of infrastructure - Rites: supervised educational systems, for example exams. What was new in this dynasty was a new system of checks and balances that was introduced under 3 government organs: - the office of Special Advisors: was an institute of confucian morals and their task was to examine the Kings's questions and formulate answers. - The office of the Inspector-General: the inspection of government officials - The office of the Censor-General: criticize the kings's orders. When it deemed an order inappropriate it was their duty to criticize this.

Answer 43

For local administration, the country was divided into 8 provinces (to) which were further divided into counties (gun) and districts (hyŏn). The provinces were administered by centrally appointed governors, while each of the counties below them was overseen by a magistrate.

Answer 44

After the Japanese and Manchu invasions, the basic governmental structure remained the same BUT new organs were created that led to a reorganization of the state. 1. The Border Defence Council (Pibyǒnsa, which had been established in the 16th century) became increasingly important and began to eclipse the State Council and the Six ministries. 2. System of Public appeals (Kyŏkchaeng): Under this system, members of the commoner population would make their grievances known directly to the king by banging on gongs or drums in front of the royal palace. or close to the king during a royal procession. One of the hallmarks (keurmerk) of late Chosŏn politics was the factionalism (a group which is split into two or more smaller groups with differing and often opposing opinions or interests) of the ruling elite. The first major factions (Easterners & the Westerners) were formed in the mid-16th century. After further splits, there emerged 4 major factions: 1. The Northerners 2. The Southerners 3. The Soron (Young Doctrine) 4. The Noron (Old Doctrine) From the early 18th century onward, the Noron was the strongest faction at court. Intra-elite conflict was finally tamed during reigns of King Yŏngjo and King Chŏngjo, who adopted a policy of impartiality (onpartijdigheid) under which they actively tried to create equilibrium among the various factions through official appointments. The death of Chŏngjo (1800) ushered in a new period in which powerful royal in-law families controlled the throne. These families dominated politics in the early to mid-19th century and helped to exacerbate (verergeren) the breakdown of Chosŏn.

Answer 45

- on paper it was in accordance to confucianism | - but in reality it was for succession (marriage)

Answer 46

In 1591 Hideyoshi sent out a letter and asked for permission to build an imperial road to China through Korea (as a plan to conquer China, not Korea). The Koreans sent his report to the embassy and they ruled the threat was groundless. The deputy ambassadors report however said that it was credible. His report was ignored and no special preparations were taken in defence of the country. Thus the Japanese proceeded with two invasions. First invasion started with the landing at Pusan in May 1592. There was minor resistance and marched on Seoul in less than 3 weeks. - Yukinaga and Gregorio de Cespedes: Yukinaga was Christian and an important figure. He took with him a Portugese priest (is believed to be the first EU person to have set foot in Korea) Two factors saved Korea: 1. Chinese intervention 2. Due to the clever admiral (Yi Sunsin) who commanded the navy ships, ships covered in metal whereby fire couldn't destroy the ships. It were the first of its kind. In 1593 the hostilities stopped, but negotiations broke down (between Japan and China), because Japan wanted to be as big as China. Hideyoshi launched a second attack in 1597; less successful and ended soon after his death in 1598.

Answer 47

Ming dynasty had spent so much of its capital and manpower in the war with Japan that it became vulnerable to its northern neighbor, the Manchu. The Manchu toppled the Ming Dynasty and set up their own dynasty, the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912). Chosŏn supported Ming → 1st invasion in 1627 Followed by a 2nd one in 1636, when Chosǒn refused to recognize the newly declared Qing dynasty. With the Manchu’s victory, King Injo 仁祖 was forced to surrender and break ties with Ming. Chosŏn became a tributary of Qing

Answer 48

Chosǒn’s legal code divided the people into 3 categories: 1. freeborn (yang’in): consists of Yangban, people who would pay taxes, but had rights and privileges over the low-born people. The Yangban consisted out of °Munban: civil officers, who did not have to perform manual labor, only intellectual. °Muban: military officers (was less prestigious than the civil officers). --> marriage had to happen within class. 2. Middle people (Chung’in): people with skill and running government positions, f.e. lawyers, technicians, etc. 3. Commoners (Sang’in): consisted of peasants, artisans and merchants (hierarchical) And then you had low-born, mostly people who were slaves, butchers, grave diggers,...

Answer 49

The civil service examinations (=mungwa) were for people to become a civil servant. It was held every 3 years. See drawn picture for explanation/

Answer 50

- After Japanese and Manchu invasions, the basic status system of early Chosŏn remained intact but underwent gradual loosening in the Late Chosŏn period. - one major change was the emergence of wealthy peasants who were able to accumulate land, grow cash crops and hire agricultural laborers. - (important) The distinction between yangban status and commoner became undermined as rich peasants bought titles and attained yangban status while so- called "fallen yangban", whose families lost landholdings and access to official positions, lived in poverty. - -> their duty was to study day in, day out. But when they failed at that, they did not have anything to do, since they wouldn't lower themselves by doing actual labor. - Peasants gained a greater voice in village affairs. Rather than joining organizations led by local yangban, they began to form their own, most notably the Ture 두레, thus eliminated control of the yangban - Unfree population decreased. In 1801, the Chosŏn freed thousands of people; however private ownership of slaves was not abolished until 1894.

Answer 51

(FYI the transition from early Chosŏn to Late is marked by the Japanese invasions) 1) Agriculture underwent improvements in productivity which led to an increase in population. There was continuous cultivation (fallow farming was a thing of the past). 2) Peasants were expected to provide labor services, land taxes and tribute goods to the state; they also often paid rents to their yangban landlords. 3) ➡️Commerce was limited to trade in luxury goods for the consumption of the yangban class ➡️ small-scale periodic markets circulated. In the 16th c., there was an increase in these markets. 4) During the 15th c., attempts to introduce both paper and metallic money generally failed, and commodity currencies such as rice, hemp, and cotton cloth continued to be used throughout this period.

Answer 52

To revive the agricultural economy that had been devastated by the invasions, the government implemented several new systems: - A major reform of the tax system (Uniform Tax Law; Taedongpŏp): The tribute tax was replaced with a land tax paid in rice cloth, or cash. It had two positive evolutions: 1. In the short term, it reduced the tax burden on peasants; 2. in the longer term, it stimulated the development of commerce and a cash economy. - A development/rise of markets: In the 17th c., the number of markets grew and by the early 18th c., a countrywide network of local markets well established (every 5 days). Both government-licensed merchants & large private merchants were able to bypass regulations and amassing considerable capital. - Rice transplantation technique: ➡️ due to the circulation of the rice transplantation technique, which allowed for double cropping, lead to the relative economic prosperity of Chosŏn during the 18th century. ➡️ irrigation facilities were improved by the government = productivity increased - System of grain loans (hwangok): Sort of safety net where peasants could loan grain during times when grain stores were low. ❗️BUT there was a general economic and demographic decline in 19th c., due to a period of particularly severe droughts and floods, resulting in famines, major epidemics and uprisings.

Answer 53

- Korea remained part of the East Asian tributary system centered on China. - A three-way trade developed: since Choson sent tribute missions to Qing every year that had to travel on an overland route and also sent regular diplomatic envoys to Japan, opportunities for trade presented themselves. Involving Ginseng from Korea, precious metals from Japan and silk from China. - From the early 15th c., trade with Japan was allowed at the ports of Tongnae, Chepo and Yŏmpo. However, in late Chosŏn, trade was conducted at Japan House (waegwan 倭館) in the port of Tongnae, with the Sō Clan (宗氏) of Tsushima acting as an intermediary.

Answer 54

Neo-Confucianism = a mixture of Confucianism and metaphysical elements --> see Lî/Qì: example of the pine tree. - Silhak School (= practical learning): ➡️ A group of scholars focused their work on more practical issues, because they deemed it too metaphysical, ➡️ they also reexamined Confucian classics. Silhak scholars (such as Yu Hyŏngwŏn and Chŏng Yagyong) proposed comprehensive proposals for the fundamental reform of Chosŏn state and society. Important treaty Magwa hoet'ong (comprehensive study of measles): published by Chŏng Yagyong in which he introduced a variolation to Korea for the first time. Later, an appendix was added explaining the Jenner method of vaccination; information copied from a Chinese pamphlet published in 1828. There is no evidence that he was able to implement this new technique. He rejected the belief that infectious diseases were caused by evil spirits (shamanism).

Answer 55

Reasons: - created to remove the difficulty of reading Chinese characters (which were over 8000). - Chinese characters also didn't really fit the Korean language. ➡️ Hangul was more accessible and it enabled women of Yangban families and commoners to be literate, providing a means of general communication and contributing to the rise of a new culture in Korea. Reaction: When this new alphabet was introduced, conservative pro-Chinese government officials were against this creation: - they were barbarians for creating a new alphabet right after they adopted the entire Chinese system. - The scholars also felt that the creation of this alphabet denied the sublime, better more prestigious society of them all, China. Sijo = korean poetry form: Most important characteristics are that their syllable structure is very flexible, while in Chinese & Japanese poems, its structure is very strict (5/7/5 --> classical structure of Chinese poetry). It is thus very fluctuating, although it resembles Japanese and Chinese poem structure. The poems can be divided in 3: 1. Exposure (A sudden shadow darkens the water below; a monk passes by on the bridge.) 2. development of the theme (“Stay a while, reverend sir, let me ask where you go.”) 3. ends with a twist and resolution (Just pointing to a white cloud, he goes on without a backward look.)

Answer 56

Another major development in late Chosŏn culture was the rise of commoner culture. - Literature employed more realistic depictions of the world, including portrayals of commoner life. Novels were written in Hangul, not that many, probably a lot of books got lost, but until the 19th century, the vast majority of literary production were still written in classical Chinese --> this lead to a sort of coexistence between new novels written in hangul and (a lot of) novels/poetry written in classical Chinese. --> so the adoption of hangul was not that big of a revolution. An example of a novel written in Hangul (16th c.- 17th c.) is "The tale of Hong Kildong": (the Korean Robin Hood). It depicts the life of Kildong who robs the rich and provides for the poor. - The rise of markets during the Chosŏn dynasty (even though it already existed during the Koryŏ period), stimulated the rise of popular entertainment, such as the P'ansori (derived from p'an, which could mean the place where many people gather, or a panel in wood and sori meaning sound/noise). P'ansori is musical storytelling which is performed by a vocalist and a drummer playing on a barrel drum.

Answer 57

In the late 19th century, Chosŏn was facing several problems such as financial, corruption, dysfunctional and continuing uprisings from peasants. At the same time, imperialist powers were trying gain power. - 1842: Nankin (inequal) treaty between UK/China (to conclude to end the opium war) ➡️ marks the beginning of century of shame for China with the invasion of the imperialistic powers in east Asia. China was forced to open its ports for commerce. - The second country that had to forcefully open its ports was Japan in 1853-54, with the treaty of Amity. - Korea resisted because of the isolationist policy that was implemented by regent Tae Wŏn'gun (he was not the king, but the father of king Kojŏng, since the king was too young to reign). A lot of Western powers tried to make Korea open its port, but Wŏn'gun was quite proficient at blocking those attacks (France, US), which made the Western imperialists fail. At the same time, Tae Wŏn'gun tried to strengthen its country's defence by fixing up warships and canons. - 1873: a big change occurs. Tae Wŏn'gun is forced to retire from his position and is replaced by the Queen Min who adopted a totally different policy, which was a open-door policy.

Answer 58

Unyō-incident of 1875: Unyō was a ship, dispatched by the Japanese to Korea as a display of military force. Japan asked 2 things: - asking Korea to open its doors - and to recognize Japan's new regime. Korea however was very reluctant to recognize Japan's new regime, because at the head of this regime was an emperor, and for Korea, there was only 1 legitimate emperor, the Chinese emperor. The Kanghwa Treaty (1876): After the Unyō entered Korean terrain, they were attacked by Koreans and the Japanese in turn destroyed their fort. Afterwards the Japanese asked for compensation for the incident, through the first unequal treaty signed by Korea. According to the treaty, - the two countries agreed to exchange envoys; - and Korea accepted to open major ports, such as Pusan, Inchŏn. ❌🤮 Foreign powers saw an opportunity here and from 1882, almost all Western powers decided to conclude the same treaty with Korea.

Answer 59

The unequal treaties started with the Japanese, and were followed by the Foreign powers since they saw opportunities. - Unilateral: basically they opened their ports for commerce, which meant that for example a Belgian merchant could sell products but also buy Korean products. But Belgium had no obligation to open its ports to Korean commerce. Only Korea had to open its ports. - unequal provisions: 1. clause of extraterritoriality: If a foreigner commits a crime in Korea, they are trialed by the laws of their respective country. That was because foreign countries ruled Korea's level of justice was not the same level as theirs (they considered it a barbaric country). It is even written in a treaty as: 'Once Korea will reach an equivalent level as the one in Belgium we will let them judge.' This clause today still exists for diplomats and counsels performing an official duty.

Answer 60

After the conclusion of the treaties and opening its doors: - Korea consequently sent ambassadors on envoys to Japan - Dispatched a lot of students from yangban families to China/Japan to learn from their advanced civilizations. - Chosŏn reformed its governmental and military institution (establishing “pyŏlgigan”, a modernized military corps). - Institutions and technologies were also actively introduced to implement a policy of enlightment/modernization. But in this process, the dispute/conflict between conservatives (wanting to maintain Confucian status quo/values) and the progressives (wanting to press these modernist reforms) intensified. ➡️ What made the situation much more complex was the involvement of Japan and Qing China, each backing one of the camps. China backing the people in favor of Confucian traditions, whereas Japan was backing up the progressives wanting radical reform (based on Western structures, because modernization in their eyes meant Westernization. It was an attempt not to get colonized).

Answer 61

Mutiny of 1882: The conflict between the progressives and the conservatives (in which China and Japan were involved) accumulated with the mutiny of 1882. In the beginning it was a small riot of an army regiment that was not happy with the rice distribution. This small riot escalated into a popular uprising under the lead of Tae Wŏn'gun (the regent father of king Kojŏng). After this mutiny, Qing China was able to secure its position in Korea. The appointment of the German citizen Von Müllendorff marked the dominant position of China. China recommended the appointment of a special advisor on foreign affairs to facilitate the Chinese interference on Chosŏn affairs. China also sent an important official Yuan Shikai to take charge of military affairs. The coup 1884: Qing China's position was further consolidated after the coup of 1884, carried out by Korean reformists (some of them stayed in Japan), who were strongly backed by Japan. These reformists were so enthusiastic about the Meji reforms in Japan, that they wanted to implement them in Korea. They tried to carry out this coup, but failed, and the leaders had to flee to Japan.

Answer 62

Trade relations were established with Japan, but the only people who profited off of these trade relationships were the Japanese. This situation fueled anti-Japanese feelings among the Koreans. (Gevolg van de unequal treaties) This led to the emergence of another uprising, which was the Tonghak uprising of 1894. Tonghak meaning knowledge of the east. First it was a school of thought against sŏhak (western science/knowledge and Christianism, so it was eastern knowledge against western), officially created in 1860 by Confucian thinker Ch'oe Che-u. It was academic at first but quickly turned into a syncretic (=bringing together different religious beliefs)/religious movement. This movement exploded in 1894 in the form of an armed rebellion against one specific authoritarian magistrate of the Kobu county. It mainly consisted revolting peasants. - They called for a crusade punishing corrupt officials (domestic); - and defending the nation against foreign aggressors (foreign). (This defending the nation against foreign aggressors is also reflected in the philosophical opposition in the Tonghak between the western sciences/knowledge and the east.) In the beginning they were quite powerful because they were able to seize/control both the north and south Jŏlla provinces. (Interestingly, today's politics show that these two provinces traditionally vote for candidates of the progressive party. Whereas people in the east are more inclined to vote for conservative candidates. They sort of have this tradition for rebellion). Despite their powerful beginning, they were oppressed and crushed by the government troops, assisted by the Japanese army.

Answer 63

The Deliberative Council: After Japan dispatched forces to fight with the Korean army against this Tonghak rebellion in 1894, Japan made demands for reformation. In response, the government established a special organ, the Deliberative Council to make these reforms. Some of these newly drafted reforms were implemented in 1894, and are called the Kabo reforms. Some of these measures included: - separation of governmental affairs from the Royal family. - Abolishment of civil examination - Abolishment of the collective family punishment (if your grandfather for example did something, you could get punished up until 3 generations). Gives a positive impression at first, paving the way for modernization, but at the same time they were strongly influenced by the Japanese government. Consequently the Japanese ambitions exposed Korea, because the reforms were carried out under the pressure of Japan.

Answer 64

Through the Sino-Japanese war. Political and economic rivalry between Japan and China led to the Sino-Japanese war. It was a short war, and China was defeated by Japan. A peace treaty was signed in 1895, called the Shimonoseki Treaty, to terminate the war. China had to give up certain provisions, Article 1 stated: "China recognizes definitely the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea, and in consequence, the payment of tribute and the performance of ceremonies and formalities by Korea to China, that are in derogation of such independence and autonomy shall wholly seize for the future." --> this meant Korea was getting rid of China's influence for good, and that Korea was not a Chinese vessel anymore. This was written in the official treaty and everyone agreed.

Answer 65

The triple intervention of Russia, France & Germany: After Sino-Japanese war and the conclusion of the Shimonoseki Treaty, Japan became the dominant power in Korea. But one of the provisions of this treaty stated the Liaodong peninsula, it said China had to give the Liaodong peninsula to Japan. A lot of western powers protested because they thought it was too much and they forced Japan to retrocede the Liaodong peninsula to Qing China. ➡️ Even though Japan was becoming a big force, western powers still had the authority to demand for example the retrocede of the Liaodong peninsula. Japan 'obeyed' the orders, and retroceded the Liaodong peninsula. The reforms of 1895: At that time a pro-Russian faction emerged within the Chosŏn government, in an attempt to preserve Chosŏn's independence to counter Japan's growing influence (as a way to create some sort of balance). In response, the Japanese assassinated Queen Min in 1895 and established a pro-Japanese government to carry out a new set of reforms called 'The reforms of 1895'. A few of these implementations were: - the western calendar - a new era-naming system. A lot of people did not agree with these reforms, and this aggressive policy triggered the rise of voluntary resistance forces called 의병 (meaning righteousness/justice and soldiers) which appeared all over the country in reaction to the Japanese reforms. Russian intervention: Taking advantage of this hostility against Japan, Russia moved King Kojŏng (whose wife, queen Min, was assassinated) to the Russian legation (is like an embassy, so Russian soil) in 1896. This way, the Russians established themselves as legitimate players in the political scene. Following this incident, the pro-Japanese cabinet members were dismissed/removed; a pro-Russian cabinet was put in place and for a while the Russians de facto administrated the country and controlled the government. The commoners were not very pleased with the situation, since their King had been taken 'hostage' making the situation quite embarrassing for them. (comparable to Belgian history. When Belgium was invaded by the Germans for the second time, there were two positions Belgium could choose, resist or keep neutral and start collaborating with Germany. Leopold III was in favour of keeping its neutral position (so collaborating actually) by talking to the Germans. In response to this; plans were drafted by the Secret Service to kidnap Leopold III. Eventually they were able to convince Leopold III to resist). Eventually the Korean people demanded the King's return to the Palace.

Answer 66

In the wake of the ‘kidnapping’ of king Kojŏng a new intellectual class emerged. They called for national sovereignty and civil rights. The first and most active organisation/association formed at that time was the Independence Club (Tongnip Hyŏ phoe). - They erected a symbolic gate, for this sovereignty - published a daily newspaper called 'The independent' (Tongnip sinmun) in an effort to educate the public - They organised mass meetings and rallies to submit proposals and call for national independence and a parliamentary government. It was later dissolved by the government.

Answer 67

In view of the situation with the Korean people asking for more independence, King Kojŏng returned to its Palace and proclaimed the establishment of the Korean Empire as an independent state in 1897. But the powerful influences of Russia and Japan limited Korea's attempt to independence.

Answer 68

Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905) After king Kojŏng inaugurated the Korean empire, Russia still dominated Korean politics and were also carrying out an expansion policy in east Asia (Manchuria). This Russian expansion policy combined with the Japanese' attempt to control the Korean peninsula eventually lead to the Russio-Japanese war of 1904-1905. A lot of diplomats at that time thought Japan would be defeated while in fact the contrary happened. In 1905 Russia was defeated by Japan, and it was the first time in history a western army was defeated by an asian army resulting in a shock for the European world. Treaty of Portsmouth: The peace treaty (or the Treaty of Portsmouth) between Russia and Japan was signed in Portsmouth (US) in 1905. The treaty said Russia recognized the Japanese interest in Korea. (Note: in 1902, the Anglo-Japanese agreement/alliance was signed, in which Britain recognized Japan's important interest in Korea, making it a first step in acknowledging Japan's 'rightful' interference in the Korean government. The Portsmouth Treaty solidified this). The protectorate treaty of 1905: Following this Treaty of Portsmouth, a new treaty was signed in the same year, called the protectorate treaty of 1905, a treaty that forced Korea to sign this treaty. Very controversial moment in history, questioning if Korea had been forced (since Japan had displayed forces), since there were also people present in the government in favor of this treaty. King Kojŏng was also against this protectorate. Eventually Korea signed and this lead to the establishment of the Japanese protectorate.

Answer 69

After Korea became a protectorate of Japan, the Japanese took over foreign relations and finance. A lot of Koreans resisted, especially the Emperor Kojŏng. Peace conference The Hague (1907): In 1907, the second peace conference took place in the Netherlands. They discussed treaties concerning the regulation of wars. Emperor Kojŏng sent 3 envoys there to denounce the Japanese protectorate, saying it was illegal. The delegates tried to enter the conference building, but were denied entrance. Eventually one, Yi Chun, decided to commit suicide. Later, the hotel they stayed in, was bought by the Korean government and decided to name it after Yi Chun and turn it into a museum (Yi Chun Peace Museum). Following this incident, the emperor was forced to leave the throne and his son became the new and last emperor of the Chosŏn dynasty. The treaty of Annexion (1910): Was signed in 1910 and Korea officially became part of the Japanese empire as a colony which marked the official beginning of the Japanese colonization. (You could argue it already was in 1905, but technically it was a protectorate). In Japan people were not very happy with the decision of Japanese colonization. One of the greatest Japanese poets Ishikawa Takuboku wrote a Japanese taaka waka (one of the most prestigious forms of poetry), condemning this.

Answer 70

After the annexation: - a governor-general was established in Korea (who was a residency-general during the protectorate) who would be head of Japan in Korea. This governor-general was extremely powerful, since he was immediately attached to the Japanese Imperial House, he reported directly to the Emperor and thus was not under the authority of another Japanese official. He virtually had complete authority over the country, with supervision over the Japanese army and navy units. There were also a couple of several offices that reported directly to the governor-general. - The country continued to be divided into 13 provinces, although it remained quite similar to its old structure.

Answer 71

A lot of people did not agree with Japan turning Korea into a colony, but at the same time there were also a lot of collaborators. Some turned to resistance and one of the characteristics of this resistance was - it being active both within the country and abroad, specially in Manchuria. (There were people who decided to leave the continent and tried to defend the Korean position from abroad. Yi Sung Man, who later became the first president of South Korea, was one of them. He was already in America in 1919, way before the war and he lobbied the American government and the international diplomats. After the Japanese surrender, a lot of people went North (now North Korea) to live there. One of them was Kim Il-Sŏng, who later became the founder of North Korea and ruled it until his death in 1994, was also involved in the resistance against the Japanese. To a certain extent, he played a pivotal role in the resistance.) - This armed resistance against the Japanese did not start at the beginning of the colonization. They already started when Emperor Kojŏng sent his envoys to The Hague in 1907. Throughout the country, uprisings had already started against the Japanese Protectorate. There was one official who had been assassinated in 1909 during a (mis) dedicated to Leopold II, because he had died, and during this occasion a high ranking Japanese official was assassinated by a Korean. Most of the armed troops were located in Manchuria (China), where there was a big settler Korean community. - There was a kind of provisional government in exile established in China in 1919. But the resistance movement wasn't really unified, at least during the first period of the Japanese annexation. During the last years, it became more unified in the last years. But in the beginning it was quite independent and at times not really cooperating. It wasn't uncommon for the resistance to operate independently, because if you look at France during the Nazi occupation, a lot of movements were fighting against them but they were not really unified. It was the president who decided to unify these movements.

Answer 72

Because of the March 1st movement of 1919, which was a very important movement. In 1919, Emperor Kojŏng died and the Korean people knew he had been very active in trying to save his country. So a lot of demonstrations, gatherings happened and on March 1st, 29 leaders gathered in a Chinese restaurant in Seoul and read aloud the declaration of independence. Then, peaceful demonstrations occurred on the streets of Seoul, but also in other cities. They had been organized in secret during the previous months, asking for justice and Korea's independence. What followed were peaceful demonstrations (highlighted by documents written by Belgian diplomats in Tokyo). However, the government was taken by surprise and tried to violently and brutally repress the protests. Consequently, uprisings broke out throughout the country and lasted until the summer. It was a kind of trauma for the Korean people.

Answer 73

Cultural policy: Following the March 1st movement, the Japanese decided to implement a new policy, called the cultural policy. The idea was to loosen the strict rules of the colonization and to enable Koreans cultural freedom (to a certain extent) and this lasted until the 1930s. In 1931 Japan decided to extend its aggressive policy in China which lead to the 2nd Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945). From 1931 to 1945 the Japanese went back to a more aggressive, severe oppressive colonial policy.

Answer 74

The main focus of colonial economic policy was to turn Korea into Japan's main supplier of rice. This made a lot of Koreans poor, which consequently made a lot of Koreans go to Japan, because it was regarded as a country where money could be earned. In 1945, when the Japanese empire collapsed, approx. 2 million Koreans lived in Japan. This Korean minority living in Japan is regarded as a legacy of the colonial period. After the war; 1.5 million Koreans went back to the Korean peninsula (massive repatriation movement between '45-47). But at that moment, the situation on the Korean peninsula became very tense and it was clear a war was about to break out. So a lot of Koreans did not fully repatriate and decided to stay in Japan. During the 50s, the Korean minority in Japan suffered poverty and discrimination. They had no access to higher education and therefore couldn't find a proper job. If they did find a way to attend university and a job, they faced a lot of discrimination. Famous trial in Japan 1970 that lasted until 1974, which was a clear example of the discrimination Koreans faced: Pak, a Korean who was born in Japan but with Korean citizenship, applied for a job in the Hitachi factory. He was selected and went for an interview. He then got the position, but they asked him to provide them with a document stating his place of birth (a document only available to Japanese people). He was not able to provide that document and Hitachi decided to withdraw his job position, mentioning "we cannot trust people who lie like you"; after which he sued the factory. He won, and the judge was the first to explicitly write and acknowledge in the judgement that discrimination against Koreans had become the norm and that it was not okay.

Answer 75

In 1958, the leader of the North Korea, Kim il Song, sent a broadcast message and addressed the message to the Korean community in Japan, acknowledging the discrimination they faced and urged them to come back to (North) Korea, guaranteeing education for their children, decent living conditions, etc. The mass repatriation movement followed after this, starting in 1959 and it lasted until 1984, with 93 000 Koreans and Japanese wives, going back to Korea with hopes for a better future. At that time, not much was known on North Korea, there were however a couple of intellectuals, politicians who had had the chance to visit North Korea, and wrote about their experiences who were very positive, saying real socialism was being built and that the country was recovering from the Japanese colonial era and becoming a wonderful country. So a lot of Koreans trusted these writings. At the beginning they thought they would be able to go back to Japan, which was unfortunately not the case.