Kohlberg's theory - research

Question 1

Dahl (2019)

Answer 1

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Question 2

Drummond et al. (2016)

Answer 2

This study explored the role of guilt and shame in early prosocial behavior by extending previous findings that guilt‐ and shame‐like responses can be distinguished in toddlers and, for the first time, examining their associations with helping. Toddlers (n = 32; Mage = 28.9 months) were led to believe they broke an adult’s toy, after which they exhibited either a guilt‐like response that included frequently confessing their behavior and trying to repair the toy; or a shame‐like response that included frequently avoiding the adult and seldom confessing or attempting to repair the toy. In subsequent prosocial tasks, children showing a guilt‐like response helped an adult in emotional distress significantly faster and more frequently than did children showing a shame‐like response.

Question 3

Tangney et al. (2007)

Answer 3

Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior. This chapter reviews current theory and research on moral emotions. We first focus on a triad of negatively valenced “self-conscious” emotions—shame, guilt, and embarrassment. As in previous decades, much research remains focused on shame and guilt. We review current thinking on the distinction between shame and guilt, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two moral emotions. Several new areas of research are highlighted: research on the domain-specific phenomenon of body shame, styles of coping with shame, psychobiological aspects of shame, the link between childhood abuse and later proneness to shame, and the phenomena of vicarious or “collective” experiences of shame and guilt. In recent years, the concept of moral emotions has been expanded to include several positive emotions—elevation, gratitude, and the sometimes morally relevant experience of pride. Finally, we discuss briefly a morally relevant emotional process—other-oriented empathy.

Question 4

Murrar et al. (2019)

Answer 4

Shame and guilt proneness are negative emotional dispositions that diverge in their behavioral responses. After a wrongdoing, shame tends to have a maladaptive influence on behavior, and guilt tends to have an adaptive influence on behavior. The current study sought to investigate shame and guilt tendencies among children and adolescents in a real-world context that has all the characteristics to generate these feelings: the hockey penalty box. We surveyed children and adolescent ice hockey players with experience serving time in the penalty box (N = 123). Findings showed that players who were higher in guilt proneness recalled experiencing more guilt-related feelings and cognitions in the penalty box than players lower in guilt proneness. The different cognitions relate to more anticipation of improving their playing. Players higher in shame proneness experienced more shame-related feelings and cognitions than players lower in shame proneness, which was related to more self-blaming. These findings have implications for the development and consequences of prosocial behaviors.

Question 5

Daniels and Robinson (2019)

Answer 5

Shame is a powerful and relevant discrete emotion in the workplace, as organizations are rife with potential to induce shame, and reactions to shame relate to important organizationally relevant outcomes. In this article, we review shame-related research from a variety of disciplines, integrating and identifying common patterns to better understand the shame process as it relates to organizational life. In doing so, we develop a framework that outlines the more internal psychological processes at the heart of the emotion of shame and situates these processes within the context of organizations. This framework highlights the organizational factors that help instigate shame in employees (i.e., unintentional shame triggers and purposeful shaming behaviors) as well as the behavioral outcomes important to organizations (i.e., prosocial, withdrawal, and aggressive behaviors) and provides insights regarding moderators that likely impact this process. In addition, we discuss future research implications as they pertain to each of the components in our framework, hoping that our article not only improves our understanding of organizational shame but encourages much-needed future research on it.

Question 6

Ellemers et al. (2019)

Answer 6

We review empirical research on (social) psychology of morality to identify which issues and relations are well documented by existing data and which areas of inquiry are in need of further empirical evidence. An electronic literature search yielded a total of 1,278 relevant research articles published from 1940 through 2017. These were subjected to expert content analysis and standardized bibliometric analysis to classify research questions and relate these to (trends in) empirical approaches that characterize research on morality. We categorize the research questions addressed in this literature into five different themes and consider how empirical approaches within each of these themes have addressed psychological antecedents and implications of moral behavior. We conclude that some key features of theoretical questions relating to human morality are not systematically captured in empirical research and are in need of further investigation.

Question 7

Mazzone et al. (2016)

Answer 7

We analyzed developmental changes in outsider behavior, testing whether the likelihood that it turns into bullying or defending over time depends on the individual proneness to feel shame or guilt. Participants were 155 preadolescents (72 boys and 83 girls; 𝑋¯age at T1 = 10.74 years). Bullying, defending, and outsider behaviors were assessed twice by peer nominations. Shame- and guilt-proneness were assessed at T1 by a self-report questionnaire. All behaviors appeared quite stable; however, regression analyses revealed that shame and guilt were associated with outsider developmental pathway. In particular, students steadily presented outsider behavior after a 9-month period if they showed low guilt or high shame at T1. Results are discussed in terms of future directions for research and interventions.

Question 8

Benavides et al. (2019)

Answer 8

Education implies profound changes that generate endless processes of construction of the subject. Currently, education resorts to training for productivity and competitiveness, through memoristic, mechanical and utilitarian knowledge. The task of the 21st century for citizens is to assume their civic responsibility. The objective of the research was to determine the moral development of a group of Mexican students according to Kohlberg’s theory and methodology. From focused interviews, results were obtained at pre-conventional levels, where respect for the law prevails, regardless of the common good, up to conventional levels, in which laws, justice and general welfare are respected. In order to improve this moral and justice vision, precursor of the common good, educational strategies for students are proposed.

Question 9

Sosler (2019)

Answer 9

This study contrasts the moral development theory of Lawrence Kohlberg with the Augustinian structure represented in the work of James K. A. Smith. Where Kohlberg emphasizes cognition and rational ability, Smith focuses on the formation of loves acquired by habits. The theories differ ontologically and teleologically, which results in wide pedagogical distinctions. This study suggests that focusing on the loves through formation offers a richer expression of education and a more holistic forming of students

Question 10

Samada et al. (2018)

Answer 10

Kohlberg’s theory about the development of moral judgement is regarded as being very important in educational practice. This article addresses his legacy and his influence in the current educational setting, especially at university level. It will also try to note possible criticisms and misinterpretations of his ideas. To this end, relevant literature relating to the author will be analysed and discussed. There are two areas of the current university pedagogical model that draw on Kohlberg as a source: an increase in methodologies that address ethical dilemmas and the idea of bringing the university closer to reality, promoting it as a community service. The article concludes with a discussion of possible deficiencies resulting from Kohlberg’s theories.. Areas discussed include the current approach to university education in terms of competencies, the pursuit of utility as a trend in university pedagogy, and the importance of understanding cultural formation linked to moral education and the vital system of community ideas.

Question 11

Zizek et al. (2015)

Answer 11

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Question 12

Medina-Vincent (2016)

Answer 12

This paper aims to approach to the studies of moral human reasoning developed by Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan’s review about them. We will approach Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development, delving in the concepts of Pre-conventional, Conventional and Post-conventional Moral Levels, in order to discern if this evolutionary explanation of human morality acquires a universal nature, or conversely, it just concerns to moral structures of a particular human group. Straightaway, we will introduce Gilligan’s criticism to these moral standards, emphasizing the needed incorporation of contextual particularities in the notion of moral reasoning in order to define a Postconventional Contextualist Moral Level that would allow us to confront the notions of Ethics of Justice and Ethics of Care.

Question 13

McGuire et al. (2015)

Answer 13

Introduction. Early clinical descriptions of and research with people with schizophrenia described apparent difficulties in moral judgement and sensitivity. However, this research failed to take into account the effect of cognitive deficits and symptoms on task performance.Methods. We assessed people with schizophrenia on the Moral Judgement Interview, a task used in the earlier literature, alongside a battery of neuro- and social-cognitive tasks.Results. Whereas people with schizophrenia perform more poorly on this task than controls, this is mediated by memory and declarative theory of mind, and also impacted by negative symptoms.Conclusions. These results indicate that performance deficits on moral judgement tasks are not a universal feature of schizophrenia, but rather due to associated difficulties such as those in social cognition.

Question 14

Sandu et al. (2013)

Answer 14

We propose to build a theoretical model regarding the doctor-patient relationship starting from the stadiality of moral development proposed by Kohlberg. He proposes an understanding of individual moral development as a gradual development of his moral conscience, starting from the heteronomous-autonomous distinction and implications of behaviour on moral conduct and on agent capacity. We don’t agree with the author’s opinion according to which the order of moral development stages is unvarying, as they are not covered by all people at the same age.

We used a secondary analysis of data on the responses given in the interviews and focus groups held with patients with diabetes and their stakeholders, general practitioners caring for patients with diabetes and diabetes doctors. We used the analysis of discourse, in a process of open coding and axial coding.

As results, we could identify patterns of doctor-patient relationships to match with the stages described by Kohlberg, pre-conventional morality, contractualist morality, autonomy, etc. Therefore, we constructed an array of patterns of doctor-patient relationship where the levels of moral development are understood as levels of social construction of autonomy. We consider that this approach can generate a communicational model between doctors and patients and improve the future therapeutic relationship

Question 15

Gibbs et al. (2007)

Answer 15

This article revisits Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental claims that stages of moral judgment, facilitative processes of social perspective-taking, and moral values are commonly identifiable across cultures. Snarey [Snarey, J. (1985). The cross-cultural universality of social-moral development: A critical review of Koldbergian research. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 202-232] examined Kohlberg’s claims in a survey of 45 cross-cultural studies ill 27 countries that used Kohlberg’s dilemma method of stage assessment (the Moral Judgment Interview, MJI [Colby, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1987). The measurement of moral judgment: Vol. 1. Theoretical foundations and research validation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press]). Snarey’s review identified a basic stage trend but also the cultural specificity of Kohlberg’s highest stages. As a remedy, Snarey proposed a culturally inclusive elaboration of the highest stages. Another proposed model [Gibbs,.1. C. (2003). Moral development and reality: Beyond the theories of Kohlberg and Hoffman. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage] argued for maturity ill the basic moral judgment stage trend. Gibbs’ revisionist model has been associated with all alternative (dilemma-free) assessment method (the Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form, SRM-SF [Gibbs, J. C., Basinger, K. S., & Fuller, D. ( 1992). Moral maturity: Measuring the development of sociomoral reflection. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum]). Snarey’s and Gibbs’s revisionist models are compared and used as frameworks for interpreting not only the MJI findings but also newer SRM-SF findings from 75 cross-cultural studies conducted in 23 Countries. Despite continuing questions for research, multimethod convergence is found for common moral values, basic moral judgment stage development, and related social perspective-taking across cultural groups

Question 16

Moroney (2006)

Answer 16

Some Christian scholars have been critical of Kohlberg’s theory. For instance, Wolterstorff (1980), Dykstra (1981), and Vitz (1983) all censured Kohlberg for focusing on moral reasoning in responding to hypothetical dilemmas, as isolated from moral living in everyday circumstances. Joy (1983) denounced Kohlberg for overlooking the human capacity for “immoral development” or “possibilities for going astray” at every stage of life (pp. 52-53). Dykstra (1983) likewise asserted that Kohlberg “does not take human sinfulness seriously” (p. 153). Philibert (1983) criticized Kohlberg for emphasizing the idea of justice to the neglect of New Testament agape and theonomy. Schmidt (1983) went so far as to argue that because Kohlberg’s “paradigm lacks any category for grace, mercy, forgiveness, or what Lutheran theology calls gospel” that “if moral education follows only the Kohlberg principles, it is sub-Christian, potentially delusionary, and destructive of Christian faith” (pp. 143-144). Richards and Davison (1992) found that Kohlberg’s stage descriptions privilege justice considerations at the expense of other moral concepts, and are therefore inherently and unjustifiably biased against religiously conservative people. Johnson (1996) concurred that Kohlberg’s construct is “fundamentally biased against dogmatic religious belief” since “individuals who maintain that God reveals moral truths that must be obeyed are by definition not post-conventional” (p. 85). Balswick, King, and Reimer (2005) noted several “limitations of Kohlberg’s paradigm,” including its failure to account for people’s theological motivations for pursuing moral actions (p. 262). In sum, a sizeable group of Christian academicians has been outspokenly critical of some aspects of Kohlberg’s theory

At the same time, many other Christian scholars have been largely supportive of Kohlberg’s theory, and they have applied it to programs of moral development for believers. For instance, Ward (1979), Krebs (1980), and Stonehouse (1980), each have utilized Kohlberg’s stages of reasoning to guide Christians’ child-rearing practices. Stonehouse (1980) declared that, “the harmony between the findings of researchers such as Lawrence Kohlberg and the glimpses of moral development given in God’s Word is exciting” (p. 13). Ward and McKean (1982) spoke of “the substantial debt moral development education owes to Lawrence Kohlberg for providing an empirically derived theoretical framework” (p. 28). Clouse (1985) argued that Jesus’ unconditional, nondiscriminatory concern for all people harmonizes nicely with Kohlberg’s stage 6 reasoning. Dirks (1988) asserted that, “Kohlberg’s concept of autonomous moral judgment supports the biblicalconcept that the mature believer should not requiremoral decisions to be propped up by external authority figures” (p. 326). McNeel (1991) declared that, Kohlberg’s “principled reasoning can be seen as an appropriate developmental goal for Christians as well as non-Christians” (p. 312). Among Christian scholars who have viewed Kohlberg’s work favorably, a few have tried to construct detailed schemes of how his theory relates to themes and events within the Christian Scriptures. Three examples of past integrative efforts are examined below, and each is found to be fraught with problems

Four problems are evident with this integrative effort. (1) Kohlberg’s theory posits an invariant sequence of development, whereas Motet reached back to an action relatively early in Moses’ life to illustrate stage 6 reasoning. (2) Kohlberg’s theory does not allow any stage to be skipped, but Motet gave no example of stage 5 reasoning from the Exodus period. (3) Kohlberg’s theory addresses development within individuals, but Motet’s framework oscillated between the Israelites’ collective reasoning and the thinking and actions of two different people—Aaron and Moses. (4) It is doubtful that Moses’ decision to murder an Egyptian in order to prevent a Hebrew from being beaten would be scored in Kohlberg’s system as stage 6, which emphasizes respect for the dignity of all humans. Motet’s model, while creative and imaginative, is beset with serious problems. Similar problems are evident in the work of Shepard (1994).

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https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/009164710603400406?casa_token=P47Y798AbYwAAAAA:42zkKUQ3sMDC6NiEaBwRoX1xOK1693_fiUmpnCgzknw3Y5tr53gFiWdUjYNoI9UXZYhULYn6e6ngPA

Question 17

Gibbs (2006)

Answer 17

Krebs and Denton (2005) proposed that Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental approach to morality be replaced by a pragmatic approach more relevant to everyday social behavior and the cooperative moral orders of society. Although the Krebs and Denton article raises some legitimate questions, their proposal is at best premature and provokes some serious concerns. Their starting point, that Kohlberg’s model of morality is inadequate, is an evaluation shared by many neo-Kohlbergians. Before the cognitive developmental approach is replaced, however, important contributions (e.g., Rest’s schema interpretation of the stages) toward refining or improving the approach must be adequately considered. Evidence suggests that Krebs and Denton may have underestimated relations between moral judgment stages and social behavior, including sudden behavior in emergency situations.

Question 18

Krebs and Denton (2005)

Answer 18

In this article, the authors evaluate L. Kohlberg’s (1984) cognitive-developmental approach to morality, find it wanting, and introduce a more pragmatic approach. They review research designed to evaluate Kohlberg’s model, describe how they revised the model to accommodate discrepant findings, and explain why they concluded that it is poorly equipped to account for the ways in which people make moral decisions in their everyday lives. The authors outline in I I propositions a framework for a new approach that is more attentive to the purposes that people use morality to achieve. People make moral judgments and engage in moral behaviors to induce themselves and others to uphold systems of cooperative exchange that help them achieve their goals and advance their interests.

https://www.sfu.ca/psyc/faculty/krebs/publications/Toward%20a%20More%20Pragmatic%20Approach%20to%20Morality.pdf

Question 19

Dawson (2002)

Answer 19

In this paper, four sets of data, collected by four different research teams over a period of 30 years are examined. Common item equating, which yielded correlations from .94 to .97 across datasets, was employed to justify pooling the data for a new analysis. Probabilistic conjoint measurement (Rasch analysis) was used to model the results. The detailed analysis of these pooled data confirms results reported in previous research about the ordered acquisition of moral stages and the relationship between moral stages and age, education, and sex. New findings include: (1) empirical evidence that transitions between “childhood” and “adult” stages of development involve similar mechanisms; (2) support for the notion of stages as qualitatively distinct modes of reasoning that display proper-ties consistent with a notion of structure d’ensemble; and (3) evidence of a stage between Kohlberg’s stages 3 and 4. Consistent with reports from earlier research, the relationship between age and moral development is curvilinear. The relationship between educational attainment and moral development is linear, suggesting that educational environments have an equivalent impact across the course of development. Older males have slightly higher scores than older females after age and education are taken into account (accounting for 0.3% of the variance in moral ability).

Question 20

Ferns and Thom (2001)

Answer 20

To investigate the cultural universality of the developmental stages of moral judgment in Kohlberg’s theory, moral development of white (Afrikaans- and English-speaking) and black (Sotho-, Xhosa- and Zulu-speaking) South African adolescents was studied cross-culturally. While the white adolescents showed a moral developmental pattern in line with Kohlberg’s theory, the black adolescents showed a different pattern. The influence of Western and traditional norms and values, parenting styles and the possible effect of historical factors, such as the previous apartheid government system and the current democratic system on the moral development of the white and the black adolescents in South Africa are discussed. Greater consideration should, therefore, be given to the effect of the cultural, social and historical context on moral development.

Question 21

Dulmer (2001)

Answer 21

According to Kohlberg our moral judgment develops in an irreversible sequence of G stages. Starting on a level where moral problems are perceived from an egocentric point of view until an increasingly broader and more integrated perspective replaces the initially more restricted one. By using a vignette design on the background of this theory euthanasia was selected as an example to investigate to what extent arguments can morally justify a decision. In order to judge which arguments are adequate and which are less adequate cognitive competence is required. A central task of the education system is to increase this competence. Therefore it is assumed that the impact of different arguments depends above all on the level of education. All in all, the empirical analyses reported in this article do not confirm these hypotheses. In methodological respect the analyses go beyond earlier research since a recently developed multi level procedure is used. This allows an estimate of the intra-individual answer behavior of respondents and inter-individual differences between respondents simultaneously.

Question 22

Webers (2018)

Answer 22

This research builds on previous investigations seeking to understand how individuals reason about moral problems. Our research includes a preliminary investigation about Millennials and a cross‐generational analysis using secondary research data to understand this emerging generation’s moral reasoning and assess trends in moral reasoning over time. This study addresses content‐bias in moral reasoning by using a new instrument with business‐based dilemmas, the Moral Recognition Interview, based on the well‐established moral reasoning framework of Lawrence Kohlberg. Results show that the Millennials in this study exhibit differences in moral reasoning based on gender, intelligence, work experience, and academic major, however not necessarily in an expected manner. Differences in moral reasoning were found when the context or “story pull” of the ethical dilemmas presented is considered. In addition, a comparison to other studies shows that business student Millennials tend to reason at lower levels of cognitive moral reasoning than non‐business college students, as well as college students in the 1960s–1970s (Baby Boomers) and in the 1980s–1990s (Generation Xers).

Question 23

Bandura (2014)

Answer 23

A comprehensive theory of morality must explain how moral reasoning, in conjunction with other psychosocial factors, governs moral conduct. Social cog­ nitive theory adopts a cognitive interactionist perspective to moral phenomena. Within this conceptual framework, personal factors in the form of moral thought and affective self-reactions, moral conduct, and environmental factors all operate as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally. Moral think­ ing is a process in which multidimensional rules or standards are used to judge conduct. Situations with moral implications contain many decisional ingredients that may be given lesser or greater weight depending upon the standards by which they are cognitively processed and the particular constellations of events in given moral predicaments. There are some culturally universal features to the developmental changes of standards of conduct and the locus of moral agency. These commonalities arise from basic uniformities in the types of biopsycho­ social changes that occur with increasing age in all cultures. A theory of morality requires a broader conception than is provided by rationalistic approaches cast in terms of skill in abstract reasoning. Moral conduct is motivated and regulated mainly by the ongoing exercise of self-reactive influence. Self-regulatory mecha­ nisms, therefore, form an integral part in the conception of moral agency in social cognitive theory. Development of self-regulatory capabilities does not create an invariant control mechanism within a person. Self-reactive influences do not operate unless they are activated, and there are many psychosocial pro­ cesses by which self-sanctions can be selectively activated and disengaged from transgressive conduct. Mechanisms of moral disengagement also play a central role in the social cognitive theory of morality.

Question 24

Enderle et al. (2018)

Answer 24

Objective: To identify strategies and spaces used by professors to promote the development of the moral competence of nursing undergraduate students. Method: Qualitative research, developed with 20 nursing professors, through a semi-structured interview, from July to October 2016. Data were submitted to discursive textual analysis. Results: Three categories were constructed: Active methodologies as strategies for the development of moral competence; Knowledge and development of clinical reasoning as motivating spaces of moral competence; Attitude of professors as a strategy for dialogue, empathy, recovery of moral values and development of caring skills. Final considerations: The use of strategies and spaces to develop pedagogical actions favors the search for knowledge, clinical reasoning and the approach of ethical and moral aspects that collaborate for the development of the moral competence of nursing undergraduate students.

Question 25

Anya-Rodriguez and Ocampo-Gomez (2016)

Answer 25

This article examines the shaping of civic competencies and the development of values in a document from the educational sector in the State of Chihuahua. We present concepts such as democracy, transition and consolidation, political participation, citizenship, and education. The empirical information was obtained from two inquiries carried out in 2007 and 2012 about certain characterizations of those values and competencies in junior high students and professors, and university students. We used a quantitative method to obtain information about the moral reasoning and the educational ideology. The studied samples showed up a possibility to achieve a political and social participation by the professors and students within a stable political system that would correspond to democratic institutions. However, we concluded that the current Mexican socio-political epoch does not correspond with such level of participation. Finally, we provide a theoretical discussion based on the ideas of Kohlberg (1997) about the dilemma of promoting value scales or the moral development.

Question 26

Smetana et al. (2018)

Answer 26

This paper discusses the emergence and development of morality as a distinct form of social knowledge in early childhood. Drawing on social domain theory, we define morality in terms of individuals’ concerns regarding others’ welfare, fair treatment, rights, and the equitable distribution of resources. Moral judgments are described as building on early predispositions but constructed through children’s varied social experiences. We highlight some of the morally relevant interactions in the first few years of life that contribute to early moral development and then summarize evidence regarding young children’s increasing ability to distinguish moral and nonmoral concepts in their judgments. Consistent with our constructivist emphasis, we also draw attention to sources of individual differences in early moral judgment development. We conclude with some suggestions for future research that build on the innovative methods and new findings reported here to further expand our understanding of early moral development.

Question 27

Thompson and Newton (2012)

Answer 27

The contributions of these studies to our understanding of early prosocial motivation are discussed in the context of the broader research literature in this field. We consider first whether different forms of prosocial behavior (e.g., helping, sharing, and empathic assistance) reflect a core prosocial disposition in the early years. The methodological challenges of assessing prosocial behavior in very young children are considered next. We then discuss the origins of prosocial motivation in the early years, focusing on developing understanding of others’ goals and intentions, the emergence of sensitivity to equity, emotion understanding, and other conceptual advances. We conclude with suggestions for future research directions for this exciting field of study.

Question 28

Hamlin et al. (2010)

Answer 28

Previous research has shown that 6‐month‐olds evaluate others on the basis of their social behaviors – they are attracted to prosocial individuals, and avoid antisocial individuals (Hamlin, Wynn & Bloom, 2007). The current studies investigate these capacities prior to 6 months of age. Results from two experiments indicate that even 3‐month‐old infants evaluate others based on their social behavior towards third parties, and that negative social information is developmentally privileged.

Question 29

Holvoet et al. (2017)

Answer 29

Recent research suggests that infants prefer prosocial behaviour. However, some studies have failed to report this preference, raising the question of which specific parameters allow it to be observed. We attempted to answer this question by investigating whether the preference varies (1) with age (by testing infants aged 6, 12 and 18 months), (2) with type of social behaviour (help, play or share) and (3) when the pro- and antisocial agents’ appearance is manipulated (neutral, own-race or other-race faces). To this end, we use an eye-tracking methodology to assess infants’ preferences for pro- versus antisocial agents featured in animated cartoons. We found that the prosocial preference was not stable across ages and varied according to social scenario. No sound conclusion could be reached about the influence of faces. Our results raise a new question, concerning the extent to which very young infants perceive prosociality in complex social behaviour.

Question 30

Hammond and Drummond (2019)

Answer 30

Emotions form the foundation of infants’ early social interactions and yet their role in prosocial behaviors is generally limited to situations of distress and other negative emotions. The present article argues that both positive emotions and the emotion of interest play important roles in prosocial behavior and development. First, we explore the ways in which positive emotions characterize infants’ everyday prosocial behavior and the relationships that support these behaviors. We then examine the emotion of interest and its role in infants’ prosocial behavior. This article synthesizes recent research on positive emotions in early prosocial development and provides a first attempt to link the emotion of interest to prosocial behavior. We close by discussing future directions for research on prosocial behavior with these emotions.

Question 31

Aknin et al. (2012)

Answer 31

Evolutionary models of cooperation require proximate mechanisms that sustain prosociality despite inherent costs to individuals. The “warm glow” that often follows prosocial acts could provide one such mechanism; if so, these emotional benefits may be observable very early in development. Consistent with this hypothesis, the present study finds that before the age of two, toddlers exhibit greater happiness when giving treats to others than receiving treats themselves. Further, children are happier after engaging in costly giving – forfeiting their own resources – than when giving the same treat at no cost. By documenting the emotionally rewarding properties of costly prosocial behavior among toddlers, this research provides initial support for the claim that experiencing positive emotions when giving to others is a proximate mechanism for human cooperation.

Question 32

Aknin et al. (2019)

Answer 32

This chapter summarizes research on the link between prosocial behavior and happiness. While numerous large-scale surveys document a robust association between donating time and well-being (even while statistically controlling for a number of confounds), experimental
evidence offers little support for a causal relationship. Meanwhile, a growing body of experimental evidence suggests that using money to benefit others leads to happiness. Future research should aim to utilize large, pre-registered experiments that identify key predictions in
advance. As research examining these questions continues, there may be opportunities for testing
and harnessing the benefits of prosociality in daily life. For instance, education and health care services may adopt prosocial strategies that can be compared to current “business as usual” practices used elsewhere. This also has the advantage of building collaborations spanning
academic, private, and governmental partners. The involvement of front-line service providers in both the design and execution of alternatives would do much to increase the success, policy relevance and wider application of the innovations being tested. Harnessing pro-sociality offers the prospect of managing institutions and delivering services in ways that can save resources
while potentially boosting happiness for all parties.

Question 33

Flook et al. (2019)

Answer 33

Research points to evidence of innate prosocial tendencies present early in life. As more complex cognitive abilities emerge with development, this may alter the expression and nature of prosocial behaviors over time. Sharing is one important expression of prosocial behavior. Our aim was to explore how children’s sharing behavior with different recipients across important social categories changes by comparing two distinct transitional periods in development. We compared the responses of 46 preschoolers (M age = 4.95 years) and 52 5th graders (M age = 9.98 years) on two social decision-making paradigms. Results showed that older children shared more selectively depending on the recipient than younger children, who shared resources more equitably with different recipients. A second paradigm revealed greater uncoupling of behavior and cognition among older children, such that prosocial behavior in preschoolers was more closely linked to their judgments about the recipient’s character than it was for 5th graders. Increased cognitive complexity that emerges over the course of development can be used to help or discriminate against others, depending upon how those capacities are channeled. Therefore, how these abilities are shaped has important societal consequences.

Question 34

Warneken and Tomasello (2006)

Answer 34

Human beings routinely help others to achieve their goals, even when the helper receives no immediate benefit and the person helped is a stranger. Such altruistic behaviors (toward non-kin) are extremely rare evolutionarily, with some theorists even proposing that they are uniquely human. Here we show that human children as young as 18 months of age (prelinguistic or just-linguistic) quite readily help others to achieve their goals in a variety of different situations. This requires both an understanding of others’ goals and an altruistic motivation to help. In addition, we demonstrate similar though less robust skills and motivations in three young chimpanzees

Question 35

Karasewich et al. (2019)

Answer 35

When young children recruit others to help a person in need, media reports often treat it as a remarkable event. Yet it is unclear how commonly children perform this type of prosocial behavior and what forms of social understanding, cognitive abilities, and motivational factors
promote or discourage it. In this study, 48 3- to 4-year-old children could choose between two actors to retrieve an out-of-reach object for a third person; during this event, one actor was physically unable to provide help. Nearly all of children’s responses appropriately incorporated
the actors’ action capacities, indicating that rational prosocial reasoning – the cognitive basis for effective indirect helping – is common at this young age. However, only half of children actually directed an actor to help, suggesting that additional motivational factors constrained their prosocial actions. A behavioral measure of social inhibition and within-task scaffolding that increased children’s personal involvement were both strongly associated with children’s initiation of indirect helping behavior. These results highlight social inhibition and recognizing one’s own potential agency as key motivational challenges that children must overcome to
recruit help for others.

Question 36

Sommerville et al. (2018)

Answer 36

Cost-benefit analyses are central to mature decision-making and behavior across a range of contexts. Given debates regarding the nature of infants’ prosociality, we investigated whether 18-month-old infants’ (N = 160) prosocial behavior is impacted by anticipated costs and benefits. Infants participated in a helping task in which they could carry either a heavy or light block across a room to help an experimenter. Infants’ helping behavior was attenuated when the anticipated physical costs were high versus low (Experiment 1), and high-cost helping was enhanced under conditions of increased intrinsic motivational benefits (Experiments 2 and 3). High-cost helping was further predicted by infants’ months of walking experience, presumably because carrying a heavy block across a room is more effortful for less experienced walkers than for more experienced walkers demonstrating that infants subjectively calibrate costs. Thus, infants’ prosocial responding may be guided by a rational decision-making process that weighs and integrates costs and benefits.